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DESIGN  IN 
LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 


Painted  liy  Hobart  Nichols 

THE    K1101>01>ENDK0XS 
Country  Place  of  Professor  Charles  S.  Sargent,  Brookline,  Mass. 


DESIGN  IN 
LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 

BY  ^^-^ 

RALPH  RODNEY  ROOT,  B.S.A.,  M.L.A. 

Assistant  Professor  of  Landscape  Gardening.     In  charge  of  Pro- 
fessional Course,  University  of  Illinois 

AND 

CHARLES  FABIENS  KELLEY,  A.B. 

Assistant  Professor   of  Art.     Head   of  Department  of  Art, 
Ohio  State  University 


NEW  YORK 
THE  CENTURY  CO. 

1914 


Copyright,  1914,  by 
The  Century  Co, 


151371 


PEEFACE 

It  has  seemed  to  tlie  authors  that  there  is  a  real 
need  for  a  book  which  will  sum  up,  in  a  compact 
way,  the  most  definite  principles  of  design  as  ap- 
plied to  Landscape  Gardening.  As  in  all  subjects 
relating  to  the  fine  and  applied  arts,  very  definite 
principles,  rather  than  laws  exist,  though  they  are 
not  always  as  easy  of  demonstration  as  the  laws  of 
physics  and  mathematics. 

*'I  confess  that  the  great  object  of  my  ambition 
is  not  merely  to  produce  a  'booh  of  pictures,  but  to 
furnish  some  hints  for  establishing  the  fact,  that 
true  taste  in  landscape  gardening,  as  well  as  in  all 
the  other  polite  arts,  is  not  an  accidental  effect, 
operating  on  the  outward  senses,  but  an  appeal  to 
the  understanding,  which  is  able  to  compare,  to 
separate,  and  to  combine,  the  various  external  ob- 
jects, and  to  trace  them  to  some  preexisting  causes 
in  the  structure  of  the  human  mind. ' ' — Humphrey 
Bepton. 

That  such  principles  exist  is  not  a  matter  of  com- 
mon knowledge  or  opinion,  if  one  may  judge  by  the 


PREFACE 

unscientific  discussions  of  landscape  gardening 
wMch  at  the  present  time  are  appearing  in  un- 
precedented numbers. 

It  cannot  be  denied  that  landscape  has  a  dis- 
tinctly emotional  value,  but  book-discussions  of 
this  nature  have  always  seemed  futile  to  the  au- 
thors. Though  considerable  in  bulk,  these  books 
are  of  slight  real  value  because  of  their  unsystem- 
atic recording  of  principles,  and  limited  range. 

This  book  is  based  largely  upon  lectures  offered 
in  the  department  of  landscape  gardening  at  the 
University  of  Illinois.  The  subject  of  plant  color 
and  the  theory  of  color  planting  is  given  to  the 
public  with  some  reluctance.  In  spite  of  much 
time  and  study  it  still  seems  inadequate.  The  sub- 
ject is,  however,  presented  from  a  new  standpoint 
and  it  is  hoped  that  other  workers  in  the  same  field 
may  make  much  further  progress  along  the  way 
here  pointed  out. 

Through  this  book  the  terms  landscape  architect, 
landscape  gardener,  and  landscape  designer,  have 
been  used  interchangeably.  There  are  strong  par- 
tizans  for  each  of  these  appellations,  who  can  see 
no  good  in  the  employment  of  the  other  two.  In 
the  voluminous  articles  published  in  support  of 
these  views,  nothing  has  appeared  so  convincing 


PREFACE 

as  to  prejudice  the  authors  in  favor  of  any  definite 
and  exclusive  title.  In  fact  they  feel  that  bicker- 
ing on  matters  of  terminology  where  the  subject 
matter  is  universally  agreed  upon  is  apt  to  denote 
a  tendency  to  decadence,  rather  than  to  vigorous 
constructive  work. 

The  authors  are  indebted  to  Professor  J.  C. 
Blair,  Professor  Charles  Mulford  Robinson,  Pro- 
fessor H.  B.  Dorner,  Mr.  F.  A.  C.  Smith,  of  the 
University  of  Illinois  and  Mr.  G.  R.  Forbes,  of 
New  York,  for  their  courtesy  in  allowing  them  to 
reproduce  several  of  the  photographs  used  as  illus- 
trations. Some  of  the  illustrations,  several  of  the 
plans,  for  instance,  are  copies  made  from  the  work 
of  students  at  the  University  of  Illinois.  Some 
were  redrawn,  others  were  used  exactly  as  pre- 
sented. The  drawings  are  the  work  of  C.  F.  Kel- 
ley. 

September  29, 1914. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTEE  PAGE 

I     ELEMENTS  OF  LANDSCAPE  DESIGN 3 

Architecture  .      .      .      • 5 

Sculpture 12 

Painting 14 

Agriculture 15 

Horticulture 16 

Engineering         17 

II     DESIGN 20 

III  COLOR 85 

IV  PLANTING 105 

V     PROBLEMS 159 

Cooperative    Landscape-gardening 159 

An  American  Home 168 

Small    Places 178 

School   Grounds 190 

Golf-course 196 

A  Country  Estate 204 

VI     GARDEN  DESIGN 218 

INDEX 267 


LIST  OP  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

The  Ehododendrons Frontispiece 

Figure     1.  Pompeian  Garden  as   an  Outdoor  Room 9 

Figure     2.  Durham    Cathedral 23 

Figure    3.  The  Torii  at  Miyajima,  Japan 26 

Figure    4.  Two  different  elevations  of  the  same  plan 29 

Figure     5.  Fountain  from  the  Boboli  Gardens,  Florence,  Italy  .      .  32 
Figure  6a,  Scheme  for  the  "  naturalization  "  of  the  fountain  from 

the   Boboli    Gardens 33 

Figure  6b.     Another     scheme     for    the    "  naturalization "    of    the 

fountain  from  the  Boboli  Gardens 35 

Figure     7.  Planting  to  break  the  line  of  transition  between  a  build- 
ing  and    its    surroundings 38 

Figure     8.  A    formal    plan    showing    strongly   marked    geometrical 

character    of    divisions 47 

Figure     9.  Garden  as  an  outdoor  room,  Villa  Albani,  Rome    .      .  49 

Figure  10.  Informal  planting  plans 52 

Figure  11.  A  Japanese  garden 55 

Figure  12.  Rhododendrons  in  the  Sargent  garden.  Holm  Lea,  Brook- 
line,  Mass 60 

Figure  13.  Three  plans  to   illustrate  the  flexible   character   of  in- 
formal planting  masses 62 

Figure  14.  Informal   and  formal  balances 65 

Figure  15.  Repetition  of  similar  tree  forms,  Hill-Top,  Fiesole,  Italy  68 

Figure  16.  Carpeau's   Fountain,   Luxembourg   Gardens,   Paris   .      .  73 

Figure  17.  The  geometrical  basis  of  the  plan  in  formal  design  .      .  76 

Figure  18.  The  geometrical  basis  of  the  plan  in  informal  design  79 

Figure  19.  Diagram  of  complementary  colors    .......  87 

Figure  20.  Diagram    of    seasonal    color    changes 90 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTEATIONS 

PAGE 

Figure  21.  Hillside  planting  to  pi-oduce  illusions  of  grade   .      .      .  106 
Figure  22.  The  sort  of  thing  that   demands   screening    .      .      .      .110 

Figure  23.  Private  grounds  that  are  not  too  secluded  in  appearance  114 

FigTire  24.  Horticultural  accents 118 

Figure  25.  A  colonial  garden 122 

Figure  26.  Villa    Aldobrandini,    Frascati,    Italy 127 

Figure  27.  Enframement  of  vista  from  Villa  Medici,  Rome  .      .      .  129 

Figure  28.  Woodland   planting 131 

Figure  29.  A  pictorial  composition  in  vpild  planting 135 

Figure  30.  Gardenesque  planting 139 

Figure  31.  Park-like  planting  at  Warwick,  England 142 

Figure  32.  Tree  forms 143 

Figure  33.  Rose  of  Sharon 146 

Figure  34.  The  Golden  Elder 146 

Figure  35.  Snowberry 146 

Figure  36.  Faulkner  Farm 155 

Figure  37.  Repetition  of  geological  characteristics  in  tree  forms  .      .  166 

Figure  38.  East  Avenue,  Rochester,  N.  Y 170 

Figure  39.  Bald  treatment  of  a  small  city  street 175 

Figure  40.  Unkempt  surroundings 175 

Figure  41.  Plan  for  the  development  of  a  suburban  residence   .      .  179 

Figure  42.  Planting  for  color  effect 182 

Figure  43.  Plan  for  the  development  of  a  suburban  residence  .      .  185 
Figure  44.  Attractive  and  practical  school  surroundings  ....  1S8 
Figure  45.  Proposed  arrangement  of  a  new  golf  course  for  the  Uni- 
versity of  Illinois 197 

Figure  46.  Proposed  development  of  a  new  golf  course   ....  198 

Figure  47.  Horticultural  accents 201 

Figure  48.  Holm  Lea,  Brookline,  Mass 208 

Figure  49.  Montacute  House 212 

Figure  50.  A  plan  for  a  country  estate 215 

Figure  51.  A  second  plan  for  a  country  estate 222 

Figure  52.  The  garden  as  an  outdoor  room,  Villa  Pamphili  Doria, 

Rome 225 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Figure  53.  Lavish  architectural  treatment,  Villa  Albani,  Rome     .  229 

Figure  54.  Architectural  predominance,  Villa  d'Este,  Tivoli,  Italy  234 
Figure  55,  Combination   of   architectural   and   horticultural    accent 

material  to  emphasize  a  vista,  Villa  d'Este   .      .      .  236 

Figure  56.  Terrace  garden 238 

Figure  57.  Garden  Temple  at  Montacute  House,  England  ....  241 

Figure  58.  Topiary  work 243 

Figure  59.  A  typical  Italian  garden  plan,  Villa  d'Este  ....  249 
Figure  60.  A  garden  at  Milton,  Mass.,  illustrating  a  good  use  of 

bedding  plants 253 

Figure  61.  Architectural  vases  used  to  introduce  plant  color,  Villa 

Lante,    Bagnaia,    Italy 256 

Figure  62.  Fountain    at   Villa    Borghese,    Rome 257 

Figure  63.  Pompeian  fountain  head 258 

Figure  64.  Stairway  at  the  Villa  d'Este 259 

Figure  65.  Retaining  wall  at  Villa  Falconieri,  Frascati,  Italy  .      .  263 


LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 


LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 

I 

ELEMENTS  OF  LANDSCAPE  DESIGN 

At  the  present  time  in  America  people  are  mucli 
more  sensitive  to  their  home  surroundings,  as  far 
as  appearances  are  concerned,  than  they  were 
thirty  years  ago.  Then  their  intelligent  interest 
stopped  with  bricks  and  shingles;  now  it  is  often 
carried  as  far  as  the  street,  and  the  grounds  receive 
a  fair  share  of  attention.  Perhaps  one  reason  for 
this  change  is  the  American's  ever-increasing 
amount  of  foreign  travel,  with  the  chance  to  behold 
not  only  the  masterly  gardens  of  antiquity,  but 
those  of  modern  times  as  well.  By  contrast,  his 
own  home  surroundings  have  revealed  to  his  edu- 
cated sense  their  uncompromising  ugliness. 

General  landscape-work  is  apt  to  appear  long 
after  the  pioneer  stage  in  any  country.  In  the  last 
twenty  years,  however,  a  strong  school  of  land- 
scape-men has  risen  in  this  country,  and  their  work 
has  been  a  very  potent  factor  in  the  education  of 


4  LANDSCAPE  GAEDENING 

public  taste  and  the  creation  of  a  demand  for  in- 
telligent landscape-designing. 

It  is  necessary  to  recognize  at  the  outset  that 
love  for  nature,  admiration  of  a  beautiful  view, 
and  delight  in  the  brilliant  colors  of  flowers,  are 
only  a  slight  part  of  the  equipment  of  a  landscape- 
designer.  These  are  essential  indeed,  but  without 
further  equipment  the  landscape-man  will  make 
pointless  suggestions  and  create  ludicrous  designs. 

In  order  to  make  a  worthy  design,  discrimina- 
tion must  be  employed,  and  that  is  always  based 
upon  sound  knowledge  and  no  slight  experience. 
Consequently,  the  landscape-man  must  familiarize 
himself  with  all  phases  of  his  art,  from  the  con- 
tagious diseases  of  plants  to  the  proper  methods  of 
road  construction.  This  is  not  the  work  of  a  tyro, 
nor  of  one  who  gushes  about  the  sovereignty  of  Art, 
with  a  capital  A,  and  proclaims  his  superiority  to 
all  rules.  It  is  for  the  careful  student,  the  well- 
balanced  man  of  taste  and  cultivation,  to  find  his 
work  and  pleasure  in  landscape-design. 

In  working  out  a  problem  in  landscape  archi- 
tecture, the  factors  with  which  the  designer  is  most 
concerned  may  be  roughly  divided  into  seven 
groups,  which  fall  naturally  into  two  large  divi- 
sions. 


ELEMENTS  OF  LANDSCAPE  DESIGN    5 

The  first  of  these  divisions  may  be  called  the 
esthetic  arts,  under  which  come  architecture,  sculp- 
ture, and  painting. 

The  second  division  is  termed  the  practical  arts, 
which  comprise  engineering,  agriculture,  horticul- 
ture, and  forestry.  In  the  final  results  in  design 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  esthetic  arts  have  been  used 
in  a  practical  way,  and  the  practical  arts  have  been 
used  in  an  esthetic  way.  A  brief  recapitulation  of 
the  members  of  these  groups  will  perhaps  place  the 
subject  of  landscape-design  in  a  clearer  light. 

AECHITECTTJRE 

Architecture  has  been  defined  as  everything 
from  ''frozen  music"  to  the  "art  of  beautiful 
building. ' '  Whatever  it  may  be,  it  must  be  useful 
as  well  as  beautiful  in  order  to  fulfil  its  purpose 
satisfactorily.  The  rooms  must  be  large  enough 
to  satisfy  the  requirements  of  practicability,  and 
their  arrangement  must  not  interfere  with  their 
use.  The  outside  of  the  building  should  express 
the  inside,  or  the  design  will  not  be  straightfor- 
ward. It  must  be  attractive  in  order  to  give  pleas- 
ure to  those  who  use  it  and  those  who  see  it.  To 
that  end  every  part  of  it,  inside  and  outside,  must 
be  arranged  to  the  best  advantage.     Stripping  all 


6  LANDSCAPE  OAEDENINO 

sentiment  from  tlie  definition,  it  may  be  said  that 
architecture  is  a  study  of  composition  in  plan  and 
elevation,  practicability  being  an  indispensable 
minimum  requirement. 

The  plan  of  a  building,  which  is  the  primary 
consideration,  is  influenced  directly  by  the  kind 
and  number  of  rooms  required ;  and  in  the  exterior 
expression  of  the  arrangement  of  these  essential 
units  the  elevation  must  not  only  express  the 
plan,  but  must  harmonize  with  its  natural  sur- 
roundings. 

If  at  this  point  the  architect  will  consult  an  ex- 
perienced landscape-designer,  he  will  find  his  ad- 
vice of  great  assistance.  It  is  important  that  the 
landscape  man's  attitude  should  influence  the 
placing  of  windows,  since  the  outlook  from  a 
house  should  coromand  all  interesting  and  beauti- 
ful features,  and  omit  all  others  as  far  as  possible. 
The  landscape-designer,  from  the  very  nature  of 
his  work,  is  sure  to  feel  more  strongly  than  the 
architect  the  importance  of  exposure  and  outlook. 
It  is  this  which  makes  his  advice  on  fenestration 
invaluable,  and  the  character  of  the  elevation  will 
to  a  certain  extent  be  made  or  marred  by  the 
placing  of  the  windows.  The  appearance  of  the 
windows  from  without,  which  will  affect  the  har- 


ELEMENTS  OF  LANDSCAPE  DESIGN    7 

monization  of  the  house  with  the  landscape  by 
which  it  is  surrounded,  is  of  equal  importance  with 
their  outlook  from  within  the  house.  This  har- 
monization is  often  further  to  be  achieved  and 
perfected  by  the  grading  and  planting  required  to 
make  the  landscape  agree  to  some  extent  with  the 
house,  and  this  the  landscape-man  himself  should 
do.  As  far  as  possible,  the  architecture  should 
appear  to  be  an  integral  part  of  the  landscape. 
In  other  words,  it  must  be  ^'in  character." 

In  landscape  design,  as  in  architecture,  the  plan 
is  the  primary  consideration,  and  no  progress  can 
be  made  until  it  has  been  decided  upon.  It  is  in- 
fluenced directly  by  the  kind  of  problem  and  the 
particular  requirements  of  the  problem.  To  be 
successful,  the  elevation  must  express  the  plan, 
and  must  of  course  harmonize  with  the  important 
natural  features  of  the  landscape.  The  result, 
whether  formal  or  not,  must  appear  to  be  sponta- 
neous. 

The  main  factor  in  the  development  of  the  de- 
sign at  this  point  will  be  the  character  of  the  lines 
which  dominate  the  landscape.  If  the  country  is 
rolling  and  sparsely  settled,  as  in  most  middle 
Western  States,  it  is  probable  that  a  building  with 
informal  lines,  asymmetrical  and  of  a  rambling 


8  LANDSCAPE  GAEDENINGl 

type,  will  seem  most  in  keeping  with  the  surround- 
ings, and  because  of  the  absence  of  natural  plant 
growth  in  the  landscape,  all  planting  features,  in 
order  to  harmonize,  must  be  used  in  connection 
with  the  building.  If  decorative  planting  is  scat- 
tered, it  will  destroy  unity  of  interest  by  breaking 
up  the  dominant  features  of  the  landscape,  and 
the  charm  of  the  rolling  country,  as  contrasted 
with  the  planting  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 
house,  will  be  minimized,  with  a  distinct  loss  of 
beauty. 

A  natural  landscape  of  an  entirely  different 
type  is  brought  out  to  advantage  by  many  of  the 
chateaux  of  France  and  the  castles  of  the  Rhine, 
where  the  precipitous  lines  of  the  crags  on  which 
they  stand  are  repeated  in  the  graceful  upshoot  of 
the  turrets  and  the  steep  and  jagged  pitch  of  the 
roofs. 

In  city  building,  of  course,  there  enters  a  for- 
mal element  which  has  not  been  taken  into  consid- 
eration in  the  foregoing  examples.  Here  at  once 
occurs  the  differentiation  of  the  two  types  of  land- 
scape architecture,  the  formal  and  the  informal. 

In  the  city,  lines  are  sure  to  be  straight,  rectan- 
gular, and  artificial.  There  is  a  primness  and  an 
unnaturalness  in  the   constructive  lines   of  city 


Figure    1.       POMPEIAN    GAKDEN    AS    AN    OUTDOOR   ROOJI 


ELEMENTS  OP  LANDSCAPE  DESIGN    11 

planning  wMch  it  is  necessary  for  landscape-ar- 
cMtects  to  consider  and  to  repeat  in  their  designs. 
A  certain  stiffness  in  the  arrangement  of  the 
planting,  which  would  be  entirely  out  of  place  in 
a  country  residence,  is  only  to  be  expected  here. 

City  planting,  necessarily  highly  formalized, 
may  consist  chiefly  in  the  arrangement  of  the 
trees  and  shrubs  in  a  regular  way  or  in  the  selec- 
tion of  formal  types  of  plants.  In  suburban 
planting,  where  the  location  partakes  both  of  the 
nature  of  the  city  and  the  country,  more  natural- 
istic types  of  planting  may  be  introduced  to  ad- 
vantage. 

So  much  should  the  house  appear  to  be  an  in- 
tegral part  of  the  landscape,  and  so  thoroughly 
should  the  elevation  express  the  plan,  that  if  it  is 
found  that  the  elevation  does  not  harmonize  with 
its  natural  surroundings,  it  is  certain  either  that 
it  does  not  express  the  plan  or  that  the  plan  should 
be  reworked. 

Architectural  accessories,  such  as  gates,  steps, 
balustrades,  walls,  and  pergolas,  are  often  used  as 
enriching  features  in  landscape-design,  and  as 
such  are  frequently  employed  in  a  decorative 
rather  than  in  a  constructive  way.  Where  judi- 
ciously introduced,  they  add  dignity  to  the  design. 


12  LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 

SCULPTTJRE 

Sculpture  has  always  played  a  very  important 
part  in  garden  design,  as  well  as  in  almost  all 
types  of  monumental  and  public  planting.  Less 
formal  than  architecture,  it  may  be  used  to  great 
advantage  as  an  accent  with  informal  planting 
schemes,  where  it  adds  the  element  of  contrast. 

Sculpture  was  an  important  feature  in  the 
early  gardens  of  Egypt.  In  the  garden  of  the 
King  of  Thebes,  for  instance,  it  was  used  as  a  con- 
trolling element  in  the  design. 

In  the  Roman  gardens  of  Pompeii  (Fig.  1)  and 
Herculaneum  the  sculpture  was  used  in  an  axial 
way,  appearing  on  the  axes  of  corridors,  walks, 
and  streets,  mainly  as  an  accent,  although  fre- 
quently employed  to  enrich  other  garden  features. 
The  forms  themselves  were  of  secondary  impor- 
tance; their  position  and  function  was  the  prime 
interest. 

The  early  Italian  gardens  employ  sculpture  in 
two  ways.  In  the  formal  treatment  hermse  served 
as  an  architectural  feature  at  the  intersection  of 
walks  and  in  connection  with  terraces,  walls,  and 
ornamental  gateways.     Informal  sculpture,  such 


ELEMENTS  OF  LANDSCAPE  DESIGN     13 

as  single  figures  or  groups,  was  used  with  planting 
in  the  gardens  where  architecture  was  not  the  con- 
trolling feature  or  where  the  architectural  element 
was  at  some  distance.  These  same  phases  con- 
tinue in  the  later  gardens  of  France  and  England, 
as  at  Versailles,  Fontainebleau,  St.  Cloud,  and 
Wilton  House. 

In  America  sculpture  has  appeared  at  a  dis- 
advantage. It  is  used  in  a  civic  way  rather  than 
in  gardens,  and  here,  as  a  rule,  it  does  not  enter 
into  the  design  of  the  park  or  square  in  which  it  is 
located,  although  it  most  certainly  should.  This 
sculpture  is  generally  introduced  from  patriotic 
rather  than  from  esthetic  motives,  as  may  easily 
be  understood  after  the  examination  of  a  few  ex- 
amples. 

In  Washington,  D.  C,  an  attempt  is  being  made 
to  correct  this  incongruity  between  the  sculpture 
and  its  surroundings  by  the  rearrangement  of 
planting  and  walks. 

Lincoln  Park,  Washington,  has  been  helped 
greatly  in  this  way.  The  landscape-architect  who 
directed  the  work  did  not  introduce  any  new  ele- 
ments, but  rearranged  the  jumble  which  he  found 
already  there,  with  most  satisfactory  results. 


14  LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 

PAINTING 

Various  schools  of  painting  have  had  a  pro- 
found influence  upon  landscape  design,  particu- 
larly in  England.     The  influence  seems  to  have 
been  exerted  chiefly  in  the  decorative  composition 
of  mass  and  space  relations,  as  the  silhouetting  of 
planting  masses  against  the  sky  and  the  types  of 
plantmg.     A  book  by  Sir  Uvedale  Price  upon  the 
*' Picturesque    and    the    Beautiful,"    which    ap- 
peared at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  advo- 
cated the  imitation  of  the  work  of  Claude  Lor- 
rain   by   landscape-gardeners   in  their   planting, 
even  to  the  introduction  of  stumps  and  dead  trees 
as  a  part  of  the  scheme  to  lend  a  picturesque 
charm;  he  nevertheless  admitted  that  formal  gar- 
dening was  best  near  the  house.    Here  the  roman- 
tic point  of  view  seems  to  have  been  the  precursor 
of  the  rustic  monstrosities  in  cement  and  iron 
which  unfortunately  have  a  large  sale  even  at  the 
present   day.     In   America   the   fad   reached   its 
greatest  height  about  1865.     Cast-iron  dogs,  deer, 
and  other  sylvan  creations  must  be  laid  at  the  door 
of  painting  rather  than  of  sculpture,  for  the  man- 
ufacturers of  these  oh  jets  d^art  probably  got  their 


ELEMENTS  OF  LANDSCAPE  DESIGN     15 

inspiration  from  the  landscape-painters  of  the 
eighteenth  century. 

The  landscape-designer  may  learn  much  from 
painting  as  regards  the  grouping  of  trees  and 
their  silhouette.  He  also  uses  painting  as  the 
most  direct  means  of  expressing  his  ideas  to  his 
client,  for  sketches  of  the  general  effect  to  be  pro- 
duced by  his  planting  usually  accompany  the 
plans.  Many  ideas  about  color  combinations  and 
possibilities  may  also  be  gained  from  a  study  of 
paintings. 

It  will  be  seen,  then,  that  architecture,  sculp- 
ture, and  painting  are  very  essential  factors  in 
determining  the  solution  of  a  problem  for  the 
landscape-architect,  and  are  used  by  him  in  a  prac- 
tical way. 

The  second  and  final  division  of  the  problem  of 
the  landscape-gardener,  which  is  composed  of  en- 
gineering, agriculture,  horticulture,  and  forestry, 
may,  for  the  purpose  of  this  discussion,  be  termed 
the  practical  arts. 

AGRICULTrEE 

In  agriculture  the  landscape-architect  is  con- 
cerned primarily  with  the  relation  of  the  plant  to. 


16  LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 

the  soil.  He  considers  carefully  such  questions  as 
soil  drainage  and  soil  composition,  from  the 
physical  and  chemical  point  of  view,  to  determine 
what  plants  are  best  adapted  to  each  particular 
locality.  This  consideration  is  most  essential  in 
the  planting  of  such  species  as  the  rhododendrons, 
which  require  that  the  soil  contains  no  lime,  but 
must  possess  the  presence  of  humus.  In  soil 
drainage  the  landscape-architect  is  concerned 
chiefly  with  the  draining  of  large  areas  for  open 
lawns,  leaving  undrained  spaces  to  be  used  for 
bogs  and  rock-gardens. 

Agriculture  is  also  concerned  with  soil  cultiva- 
tion, or  the  methods  of  caring  for  the  planted 
areas  in  such  a  manner  as  to  secure  the  best 
growth  of  plant  materials.  Another  important 
interest  included  under  the  head  of  agriculture  is 
plant  pathology,  under  which  come  spraying  and 
the  control  of  insect  pests. 

HORTICULTURE 

In  horticulture  the  landscape-architect  is  con- 
cerned with  a  study  of  the  plant  as  an  individual, 
its  growth,  propagation,  the  formation  of  new  va- 
rieties, pruning,  spraying,  and  the  best  methods  of 
planting  and  handling. 


ELEMENTS  OF  LANDSCAPE  DESIGN     17 

Horticulture  may  be  divided  into  two  classes, 
the  economic  and  the  decorative.  The  decorative 
aspect  is  of  chief  importance  to  the  landscape-de- 
signer, as  the  economic  side  appears  only  in  such 
problems  as  the  disposition  of  orchards  and  the 
screening  of  objectionable  features.  This  last 
consideration  is  nevertheless  of  as  much  impor- 
tance as  the  first,  and  is  as  much  a  question  of  es- 
thetics as  of  economics. 

The  ornamental  side  of  horticulture  deals  with 
all  the  plant  materials  used  in  landscape-garden- 
ing. The  horticulturist  groups  these  according 
to  methods  of  growth,  and  classifies  them  according 
to  size  and  soil  requirements;  but  the  landscape- 
architect  primarily  considers  them  with  regard  to 
form  and  color.  Horticulture  gives  the  land- 
scape-architect the  majority  of  the  materials  with 
which  he  has  to  work,  for  he  is  generally  called  in 
where  planting  is  to  predominate,  and  he  must  ac- 
cordingly be  thoroughly  familiar  with  it. 

ENGINEEEIN"G 

Engineering  in  landscape  problems  concerns 
the  lay  of  the  land,  the  alteration  of  grades,  the 
construction  of  topographical  work,  drainage,  and 
the  building  of  walks,  bridges,  and  drives.     Be- 


18  LANDSCAPE  GARDENINa 

fore  the  landscape-architect  can  begin  his  main 
design  he  must  have  a  clear  mental  survey  of  the 
land  with  which  he  has  to  deal,  and  upon  this  he 
bases  the  large  elements  of  his  scheme ;  for  thereby 
are  determined  the  locations  of  such  features  as 
house,  drives,  gardens,  and  water.  Furthermore, 
he  readjusts  the  contours  in  an  esthetic  way,  in 
order  to  obtain  an  even  balance  in  cut  and  fill 
wherever  possible. 

In  the  laying  out  of  roads,  the  natural  profile  of 
the  road  must  so  agree  with  the  contour  that  the 
percentage  of  grade  will  not  change  too  rapidly, 
and  that  later,  when  the  engineering  plan  is 
worked  out,  too  extensive  cuts  and  fills  will  not 
appear,  destroying  the  natural  aspect  of  the  sur- 
face. 

In  the  erection  of  retaining  walls  there  must 
first  be  a  raison  d'etre,  as  well  as  justification  from 
the  engineering  point  of  view,  preventing  too 
steep  grades  and  terraces.  Walls  of  other  types 
are  considered  architecturally. 

In  the  question  of  engineering  drainage,  the 
landscape-designer  is  concerned  with  the  combina- 
tion of  surface  and  subsurface  drainage.  Sur- 
face drainage  takes  care  of  the  water  that  is  likely 
to  destroy  the  best  appearance  of  lawns  and  plant- 


ELEMENTS  OF  LANDSCAPE  DESIGN     19 

ing  spaces,  and  subsurface  drainage  looks  out  for 
the  draining  of  garden  walks,  tennis-courts,  and 
the  conducting  of  surplus  water  to  proper  outlets. 

In  considering  the  engineering  features  whicli 
have  to  do  with  topographical  reconstruction,  sta- 
ble bridges,  and  well-graded  roads,  all  these  prac- 
tical considerations  must  be  subordinated  to  the 
esthetic  ideal  of  the  final  appearance  of  the  fin- 
ished design.  But  if  the  practical  considerations 
are  satisfactorily  determined,  they  will  actually 
contribute  to  the  beautiful  solution  of  the  prob- 
lem. The  esthetic  side  of  the  question  cannot  be 
treated  as  an  easily  detached  ornament  quite  apart 
from  any  vital  connection  with  the  design.  No 
matter  how  useful  a  thing  may  be,  we  do  not  care 
for  it  if  it  is  ugly.  Beauty  is  consequently  the 
vivifying  influence,  the  most  potent  factor  in  de- 
termining the  design  scheme. 

If  the  designer  will  keep  in  mind  in  a  broad  way 
the  subjects  which  have  been  classed  in  the  prac- 
tical and  esthetic  divisions  of  landscape,  they  will 
be  to  him  a  rock  of  strength  in  solving  his  prob- 
lems. Too  often  a  petty  insistence  on  details 
makes  one  lose  sight  of  higher,  more  important 
things,  and  ruins  a  design  which  has  great  possi- 
bilities for  beauty. 


II 

DESIGIT 

It  will  perhaps  be  advantageous  to  give  a  brief 
summary  of  design  in  general  before  the  specific 
subject  of  design  in  landscape  is  approached.  1  The    / 
underlying  principles  of  design  are  found  in  all    i 
branches  of  the  fine  and  applied  arts,  and  are  the 
means  of  criticizing  intelligently  any  object  of  de-  I 
sign,  be  it  a  rose- jar  or  a  landscape,    ji  J 

There  are  no  such  things  as  rules  of  design. 
One  cannot  learn  a  few  formulae  and  then  turn  out 
satisfactory  work  because  of  having  gone  through 
a  certain  number  of  processes  and  made  a  definite 
number  of  motions.  The  well-trained  designer 
always  has  an  attitude  toward  his  subject  which 
will  direct  him  in  his  work.  The  acquisition  of 
such  an  attitude  is  a  matter  of  deep  study,  and  re- 
quires a  long  time  and  a  fine  enthusiasm;  and  of 
course,  as  is  the  case  with  everything  worth  while, 
it  will  ripen  and  change  gradually  as  the  experi- 
ence of  the  designer  grows  and  his  horizon  broad- 
ens. '^ 

20 


r 


/\-~, 


DESIGN  21 

r^The  designer's  attitude  is  first  one  of  intelligent 

/rw^Sde^nent^'-^  inquiry  as  to  the  possibilities  of 

I  the  subject,  and  is  attained  through  the  training 

^  of  the  imagination.    A  designer  who  sees  only  one 

solution  for  every  problem  that  comes  to  him  is 

very  certain  to  turn  out  inferior  work.  \  There   ^^^^ " 

-may-iiHYe""be^  geniuses  whose  work  was  always 

the  result  of  swift  and  sure  intuition, jbut  none  of 

them  is  practising  in  landscape  or  any  other  branch 

of  design  at  present. 

v^Speaking  generally,  the -question-  of  use  is  first 
to  be  considered.  Use  may  be  defined  in  two 
ways,  the  practical  and  the  esthetic.  1  Of  course 
all  design  is  fundamentally  practical,  inasmuch  as 
it  aims  to  give  the  best  solution  of  any  problem 
with  which  one  is  working.  rWhatever  is  to  be  de- 
signed  must  perform  its  duties  thoroughlyj  bu^ 
tiiat-i'S'- not  -enough, -..It.  must  also  perform  them 
■M«  gracefully,  for  the  day  has  gone  by  when  it  was 
thought  that  objects  of  use  need  not  be  attractive.  J 
-In  fact,  if  a  useful  object  is  repellent  in  appear- 
^ee  its  very  ugliness  often  militates  against  its 
usefulness.  1^  Every  solution  of  a  utilitarian  prob- 
lem should  appear  to  solve  the  situation  so  com- 
pletely that  one  cannot  behold  it  without  a  feeling 
of  satisfaction.     Thus  beautiful  surroundings  of 


..4 


L^ 


22  LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 

one  sort  or  another  are  created,  and  these  in  turn 
have  a  direct  influence  upon  the  lives  of  those  who 
can  see  them  and  live  among  themr^ 

If  the  design  stops  short  with  the  mere  fulfilling 
of  some  utilitarian  purpose,  it  will  probably  not 
be  entirely  practical ;  it  must  be  satisfactory  in  ap- 
pearance as  well  as  in  use,  or  it  will  not  attain  the 
highest  degree  of  practicability.  \  Even  though 
the  roads  be  well  graded,  the  bridges  strong,  the 
walks  laid  out  in  such  a  manner  as  to  facilitate 
circulation,  and  the  plant  masses  so  located  as  to 
screen  objectionable  views  or  to  enhance  existing 
onesjthe  result  may  be  beautiful ;  or  it  may  be  that 
the  strong  insistence  upon  practicability  has  made 
the  function  of  the  various  parts  too  obvious,  and 
the  ideas  of  beauty,  for  which  the  design  was  cre- 
ated, have  been  lost.  A  great  deal  of  study  is 
often  required  in  order  that  the  finished  design 
should  appear  unstudied,  that  is  to  say,  spontane- 
ous. 

The  esthetic  and  the  practical  should  always  ap- 
pear together.  It  is  no  less  necessary  that  the 
practical  conjoin  with  the  esthetic,  in  order  that 
a  work  of  design  produce  the  greatest  amount  of 
pleasure. 

A  picture,  for  instance,  may  be  very  beautiful 


24  LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 

/"  in  itself,  and  yet  if  it  is  hung  in  a  dark  corner,  or 
where  the  light  reflects  from  its  surface  so  as  to 
interfere  with  its  enjoyment,  it  is  decidedly  out  of 
place,  and  is  therefore  bad  design.  Design  in  this 
and  every  other  case,  as  far  as  final  usage  is  con- 
cerned, deals  as  much  with  the  placing  of  the  ob- 
ject as  with  the  object  itself. 

In  landscape,  a  plant  grouping  or  a  piece  of 
sculpture,  an  architectural  accessory  or  a  vista, 
may  be  beautiful  in  themselves,  but  if  they  are 
placed  in  wrong  relation  to  their  surroundings, 
they  are  *'bad  design." 

How  is  one  to  judge  of  the  proper  interrelation 
of  the  parts  of  a  design  ?  This  is  again  a  question 
of  use.  The  province  of  a  designer  is  to  combine 
the  material  with  which  he  has  to  work  to  the  best 
possible  advantage.  Every  part  of  a  design  must 
be  placed  where  it  can  function  freely  and  to  the 
best  advantage.  It  must  not  only  perform  its 
function  well,  but  must  look  as  if  it  did.  Painters 
often  meet  with  the  reverse  of  this  difficulty.  In 
working  out  compositions  where  the  human  figure 
appears,  they  often  find  that  it  is  impossible  for 
the  model  to  assume  the  supposedly  graceful  poses 
which  had  appeared  easy  to  them  when  they  were 
thinking  only  of  lines  and  not  of  functions.    All 


DESIGN  25 

true  beauty  is  functional.  It  is  said  that  the  hu- 
man body  is  beautiful  because  it  expresses  its 
functions  well.  The  function,  then,  should  al- 
ways appear  unmistakably,  whether  it  be  mainly 
practical  or  esthetic  or  both  in  combination. 

It  can  safely  be  said  that  a  beautiful  design  is 
never  the  result  of  chance.  It  is  only  in  very  rare 
cases  that  things  have  happened  to  be  beautiful,  at 
least  so  far  as  the  handiwork  of  man  is  concerned. 
Wherever  one  is  struck  by  a  beautiful  combina- 
tion of  landscape  and  architecture,  whether  it  be 
Durham  Cathedral,  on  its  river  bluff,  dominating 
the  landscape  (Fig.  2),  or  the  torii  of  Miya- 
jima,  enhancing  the  beauty  of  the  sacred  waters 
(Fig.  3),  it  is  certain  to  be  the  product  of  consum- 
mate art,  and  not  a  happy  accident.  To  be  sure,  the 
conditions  of  location  were  taken  advantage  of  in 
both  cases  by  the  types  of  structure  selected,  but 
it  was  the  accomplished  designer  who  welded  the 
diverse  elements  into  a  harmonious  whole,  and 
brought  out  in  all  its  perfection  the  consummate 
work  of  art. 

Design  is  an  expression  of  man's  attitude  to- 
wards nature.  It  is  universal,  and  the  underlying 
ideas  are  the  same  in  all  cases.  Since  landscape 
design  is  only  one  of  the  kindred  branches  of  gen- 


Figure    3.      THE   TORII    AT   MIYAJIMA,    JAPAK 


DESIGN  27 

eral  design,  it  follows  that  it  is  exactly  like  all  the 
other  provinces  of  design,  such  as  architecture, 
painting,  music,  and  literature,  so  far  as  general 
principles  go.  Its  own  individual  characteristics 
are  due  to  the  fact  that  the  landscape-designer  has 
certain  unique  conditions  imposed  upon  him  by 
the  limitations  of  his  problem.  I  These  conditions 
are  quite  different  from  those  with  which  his 
brother-designers  have  to  deal,  but  he  has  also  the 
satisfaction  of  knowing  that  he  has  certain  glori- 
ous opportunities  which  it  would  be  impossible  for 
them  to  take  advantage  of  in  their  respective 
fields. 

Landscape  design  as  an  art  is  less  artificial  than 
any  other  form  of  design  because  it  deals  almost 
entirely  with  natural  objects  in  formal  or  infor- 
mal combinations.  The  landscape-designer  uses 
trees  and  shrubs  instead  of  spots  of  paint.  He 
uses  the  real  sky  instead  of  an  artificial  represen- 
tation of  one,  and  his  hills  and  ravines  should  ap- 
pear as  the  results  of  natural  forces  rather  than 
as  man's  creation. 

In  every  form  of  design,  structure,  as  a  fulfil- 
ment of  conditions,  is  of  paramount  importance. 
This  structure  may  be  the  rocky  framework  of  the 
landscape  or  the  skeleton  of  a  building.     The  re- 


28  LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 

mainder  of  the  problem,  the  esthetic  treatment  of 
this  structural  part,  is  a  question  of  means  to  an 
end.  No  matter  how  much  or  how  little  enrich- 
ment appears,  it  must  always  recognize  the  func- 
tion of  the  parts  upon  which  it  is  built. 

Landscape  design  in  the  abstract  may  be  termed 
a  problem  in  the  composition  of  areas.  Areas 
have  only  two  dimensions,  length  and  breadth ;  but 
for  the  final  consideration  of  the  design  scheme 
the  designer  must  constantly  keep  in  mind  the 
three  dimensions,  length,  breadth,  and  depth. 
This  is  because  the  design  is  to  be  viewed  from  dif- 
ferent points.  In  drawings  and  sketches,  how- 
ever, only  two  of  these  dimensions  can  be  treated 
at  one  time.  The  plan  and  elevation  must  con- 
stantly be  correlated  in  order  to  produce  a  satis- 
factory result,  and  different  elevations  should  be 
drawn  from  the  same  plan. 

The  failure  to  observe  this  principle  carefully 
is  one  of  the  great  weaknesses  of  French  archi- 
tecture. A  fine  enthusiasm  for  beautiful  geo- 
metrical design  often  permits  the  plan  to  become 
an  abstraction,  beautiful  in  appearance  rather 
than  in  function,  and  from  many  aspects  the  ele- 
vations   frequently    appear    weak.    A    building 


Figure    4.       TWO    DIFFERENT    ELEVATIONS    OF    THE    SAME    PLAN 


30  LANDSCAPE  GAEDENINO 

planned  in  such  fashion  is  designed  to  be  seen 
from  only  one  or  two  stated  positions. 

The  landscape-designer  must  prepare  his  work 
with  much  greater  conscientiousness,  since  it  will 
be  seen  from  a  variety  of  positions.  If  elevations 
are  drawn  from  several  different  aspects,  and  all 
''compose"  well, — that  is  to  say,  seem  to  have  the 
proper  space  relations,^a  satisfactory  design  in 
three  dimensions  is  assured.  This  is  Rodin's 
method  of  working  in  sculpture.  He  models  en- 
tirely for  the  silhouette  of  his  figure  from  all  pos- 
sible positions.  This  accounts  in  a  measure  for 
his  magnificent  results. 

As  may  easily  be  seen  in  a  photograph,  all 
masses  of  three  dimensions  appear  to  the  eye,  or 
rather  pictorially,  as  areas  possessing  only  two  di- 
mensions. One  actually  beholds  only  width  and 
height,  for  the  impression  of  depth  is  an  illusion. 

\ — ^  Landscape  design  may  safely  be  defined  as  the 
satisfactory  and  consequently  beautiful  composi- 
tion of  natural  areas — shapes  of  earth,  trees,  and 
sky — in  three  dimensions. 

As  used  in  this  book,  the  term  composition 
means  the  "putting  together"  of  certain  various 
elements  in  such  a  way  as  to  produce  an  appear- 

/      ance  of  unity  and  harmony.     It  is  the  assimilation 


DESIGN  31 

of  all  the  different  parts  of  a  problem  and  tlieir 
amalgamation  into  one  underlying  design  idea. . 
Every  design  should  bear  the  stamp  of  man's 
handiwork,  and  yet  the  trees,  shrubs,  walls,  roads, 
and  other  features  should  not  appear  to  be 
*' pressed  into  service."  Any  element  in  the  de- 
sign that  is  not  perfectly  assimilated  and  harmon- 
ized with  the  surrounding  parts  in  accordance 
with  the  basic  idea  is  not  composed  to  the  best  ad- 
vantage. 

It  is  a  matter  of  frequent  occurrence  that  the 
client  may  wish  to  introduce  elements  quite  for- 
eign to  the  spirit  of  the  designer's  scheme,  and 
these  elements,  though  they  may  be  either  archi- 
tectural or  horticultural,  will  often  seem  hardly 
possible  of  assimilation.  It  is  then  a  question 
of  omitting  such  elements  altogether  or  of  ruin- 
ing an  otherwise  satisfactory  scheme.  In  case  the 
element  under  consideration  seems  worth  all  the 
rest  of  the  scheme,  it  necessitates  the  re-design- 
ing of  the  problem  so  that  everything  will  har- 
monize, and  the  client's  pet  ideas  will  have  an  ap- 
propriate setting.  This  has  often  been  done 
where  some  accessory,  such  as  a  statue,  a  well- 
head, or  a  fountain  required  '' naturalizing";  that 
is,  the  designing  of  a  favorable  location  so  as  to 


32 


LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 


Figure   5.       FOUNTAIN   FROM    THE   BOBOLI   GARDENS,    FLORENCE, 

ITALY 

make  it  seem   in   harmony  with  the   surround- 
ings. 

This  is  illustrated  in  Figures  5  and  6.  It  is 
assumed  that  the  f  ountainhead,  which  is  one  of  the 
features  of  the  big  basin  in  the  Boboli  Gardens, 
has  been  transported  to  another  locality,  and  is  to 


DESIGN 


33 


be  used  as  the  principal  accent  in  a  fair-sized  gar- 
den.    Two  solutions  of  this  problem  are  shown  in 
Figure  6,  the  position  of  the  fountain  being  in- 
dicated by  a  spot  of  black. 
/jOertain  garden   accessories   demand  favorable 


Figure    6a.      SCHEME   FOE   THE    "  NATURALIZATION ''    OP   THE 
FOUNTAIN   FROM   THE    BOBOLI    GARDENS    (Figure    5) 


34  LANDSCAPE  GARDENINa 

^  location  from  their  very  nature.  A  sun-dial,  to  be 
of  any  service,  must  be  placed  in  an  open  space,  or 
it  will  not  receive  the  rays  of  the  sun.  A  statue, 
on  the  other  hand,  looks  rather  pitiable  when  ex- 
posed to  the  noonday  glare,  with  no  shade  at  hand. 
Any  delicacy  of  detail  is  lost  in  a  statue  placed  in 
an  exposed  position,  as  the  reflection  of  the  sun 
from  its  smooth  surface  is  too  dazzling  to  permit 
careful  appreciation. 

The  naturalization  of  a  feature  may  be  carried 
to  absurd  extremes.  For  instance,  an  Italian 
well-head  might  be  introduced  into  Norman-Eng- 
lish surroundings.  If  the  landscape-designer  felt 
that  the  nationality  of  the  well-head  should  be  car- 
ried rigidly  throughout  the  scheme,  the  result 
would  be  an  Italian  design  which  could  not  fail  to 
/  be  in  discord  with  the  dwellings  for  which  the  gar- 
den was  intended.  The  well-head  might,  how- 
ever, be  considered  as  an  exotic  accent  only,  and  in 
that  case  could  be  harmonized  merely  by  colors 
and  shapes.  That  would  seem  to  be  the  only  sen- 
sible solution. 

The  same  principles  of  composition  obtain  in 
landscape  that  hold  true  of  every  other  art:  each 
part  must  be  subordinate  to  the  whole ;  every  part 
of  a  design  must  articulate  with  every  other  part, 


Figure    6b.      ANOTHER    SCHEME    FOR   THE    "  NATURALIZATION 
OF   THE    FOUNTAIN   FROM   THE   BOBOLI   GARDENS    (Figure    5) 


36  LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 

serving  to  enhance  the  entire  scheme  rather  than 
insisting  upon  its  own  importance. 

The  disposition  of  areas  in  landscape  falls, 
broadly  speaking,  into  two  large  classes,  known 
technically  as  the  formal  and  the  informal  ar- 
rangements. In  each  case  the  handling  of  the 
areas  is  distinctive.  |  The  points  of  primary  con- 
sideration are  the  same,  whichever  type  of  design 
is  to  be  employed ;  but  the  style  chosen  determines 
the  method  of  approach,  which  differs  markedly 
in  the  two  classes.  Informal  design  may  be  called 
a  study  of  space  relations,  and  formal  design  a 
study  of  lines. 

No  one  can  listen  to  a  conversation  about  land- 
scape design,  even  for  a  very  few  minutes,  without 
hearing  the  "formal  and  the  informal  schools" 
mentioned,  probably  with  no  slight  degree  of  bit- 
terness on  one  side  or  the  other.  It  is  the  survival 
of  an  ancient  feud  between  those  who  claim  that 
every  planting  scheme  should  seem  to  be  the  work 
of  nature  herself,  without  suggestion  or  interfer- 
ence from  man,  and  those  who  are  equally  positive 
in  asserting  that  every  piece  of  planting  should 
bear  the  impress  of  the  designer,  nature  being 
quite  evidently  subordinated  to  his  will. 

Those  who  really  understand  informal  planting 


Photograph  by  The  Garden  Cities  and  Town  Planning  Assn.,  London 

Figure    7.       PLANTING  TO  BREAK  THE  LINE  OF  TRANSITION 
BETWEEN  A   BUILDING  AND  ITS  SURROUNDINGS 


DESIGN  39 

have  no  quarrel  with,  the  formalists,  if  only  they 
will  admit  the  usefulness  of  the  informal  school. 
It  is  the  sentimental  "landscaper"  who  has  slid 
over  the  surface  of  things  who  alone  is  bold 
enough  to  state  that  nature  will  take  care  of  her- 
self in  a  harmonious  fashion  about  the  artificial 
habitations  of  man,  though  unrestricted  in  any 
way.  It  must  be  a  very  crabbed  and  perverse 
formalist  who  will  not  acknowledge  the  beauties 
of  informal  design,  and  it  must  be  an  equally 
narrow-minded  informalist  who  will  admit  no 
good  in  the  opposite  school.  At  any  rate,  the 
extremists  run  the  best  chance  of  being  misunder- 
stood. 

The  conditions  governing  a  problem,  such  as 
location,  use,  extent,  topography,  and  other  exist- 
ing natural  surroundings,  the  style  of  architec- 
ture, present  or  proposed,  and  the  taste  of  the 
client,  will  determine  the  style  to  be  employed. 

In  most  cases  it  is  very  desirable  to  use  native 
material  in  planting  rather  than  to  go  far  afield, 
though  the  fact  that  a  specimen  is  indigenous  to  a 
locality  is  not  sufficient  in  itself  to  warrant  its  use 
in  a  planting  scheme.  Its  shape,  color,  or  habits 
of  life  may  unfit  it  for  use  in  the  particular  type 
of  problem  in  hand.     The  golden  elder,  Samhucus 


40  LANDSCAPE  GAEDENING 

Canadensis  aurea  (Fig.  34),  wMcli,  it  is  said,  was 
first  found  growing  native,  would  not  harmonize 
with  a  typical  native  planting  scheme  in  any  case, 
but  could  be  made  to  harmonize  with  a  more  gar- 
denesque-like  treatment.  Sumac,  with  its  irregu- 
lar branches,  brilliant  coloring,  and  general  in- 
formal appearance,  would  not  do  at  all  for  city 
planting. 

In  the  city  home  the  selection  of  trees  and 
shrubs  is  not  controlled  by  natural  features,  such 
as  existing  plant  material  and  contours,  for  city 
conditions  are  artificial,  and  a  naturalistic  treat- 
ment would  serve  only  to  accentuate  the  artificial- 
ity. Evergreens,  provided  they  can  withstand 
smoke  conditions,  may  here  be  used  to  advantage, 
considering  them  as  units  of  a  whole  mass  rather 
than  as  a  natural  part  of  their  surroundings. 
They  seem  to  have  an  inherent  stiffness  which  fits 
them  for  artificial  conditions. 

Trees  and  shrubs  in  city  planting  are  useful  only 
for  contrast  of  form  and  color.  Woodland  condi- 
tions would  seem  as  much  out  of  place  in  stiff  city 
surroundings  as  would  a  collection  of  topiary 
work  and  hybrid  roses  under  natural  forest  condi- 
tions, because  its  very  nature  would  lead  one  to 
question  its  appearance  among  such  uncongenial 


DESIGN  41 

surroundings.  One  would  wonder,  despite  him- 
self, just  how  much  per  foot  the  land  was  worth 
which  had  been  devoted  to  the  growing  of  lawn 
grass,  and  this  would  interfere  with  a  sense  of  en- 
joyment. The  informality  of  appearance  of  a 
lawn  of  any  extent  among  piles  of  stone  and  brick, 
city  traffic,  smoke  and  noises,  would  create  some- 
what the  same  impression  as  white  Jiannels  at  a 
formal  evening  party. 

On  account  of  the  different  conditions  which 
prevail,  a  specialized  plant  may  be  used  to  advan- 
tage in  the  city,  while  its  type  is  more  suitable  for 
the  country,  because  its  hint  of  artificiality  will 
more  readily  harmonize  with  the  surroundings. 
Nevertheless,  only  such  trees  and  shrubs  as  will 
withstand  smoke  conditions  can  be  used  in  civic 
planting  schemes. 

The  surroundings  of  all  dwellings  should  par- 
take at  least  in  some  measure  of  the  artificiality 
of  the  architectural  features,  for  this  tends  toward 
unity.  The  line  of  division  between  the  turf  and 
the  buildings  is  always  harsh,  and  something 
should  be  done  to  soften  the  transition  and  make 
it  more  gradual.  This  can  be  accomplished  by  the 
use  of  vines,  which  will  climb  over  the  sides  of  the 
house,  or  by  grouping  shrubs  about  the  founda- 


42  LANDSCAPE  GAEDENING 

tion.    In  this  way  the  house  will  seem  to  be  more 
-I    closely  welded  to  its  setting  (Fig.  7) . 

It  is  remarkable  to  note  how  few  people  have 
grasped  this  very  simple  principle.  In  many  of 
our  cities,  particularly  in  the  Middle  West,  it 
would  seem  as  if  the  owners  had  scraped  away 
from  the  building  all  planting  possible,  and  de- 
posited it  at  a  safe  distance,  for  as  a  rule  none  of 
the  plant  material  seems  to  bear  any  relation  to 
the  building  itself.     (See  Fig.  39.) 

The  architect  can  often  help  in  making  a  build- 
ing suitable  for  planting.  For  instance,  in  ar- 
chitectural gardens  a  simple  wall  treatment  will 
be  more  in  keeping  with  the  composition  of  large 
areas  than  a  more  complex  handling  of  the  archi- 
tectural surfaces.  But  where  the  planting  is  re- 
stricted to  a  few  varieties  and  is  elaborated  only 
by  a  careful  selection  of  accent  plants,  the  wall 
surface  may  be  designed  so  as  to  attract  more  at- 
tention than  in  the  preceding  instance;  for  this 
may  be  done  without  danger  of  competition  be- 
tween plant  and  architectural  features. 

If  a  complex  and  conventional  treatment  is  im- 
posed by  surroundings,  it  may  be  more  readily  ex- 
pressed when  formal  planting  lines  are  the  ruling 
f    factor.  I  Planting  and  architecture,  when  used  to- 


DESIGN  43 

gether,  are  interdependent,  and  must  possess  sim-        j 
ilar  characteristics.  / 

!  Walls  emphasize  the  architectural  features,  and  \ 
in  planting  a  walled  garden  care  should  be  taken 
that  the  plants  are  not  out  of  scale  with  the  gar- 
den by  being  too  large  or  too  small.  On  account 
of  the  dominance  of  the  walled  inclosure,  it  is  not 
necessary  to  insist  too  strongly  upon  repetition  in 
the  planting;  consequently  plants  used  in  a  gar- 
den scheme  of  this  type  may  be  more  gardenesque 
and  highly  specialized,  both  as  regards  the  filler 
and  accent  shrubs  (see  planting  chapter).  Con- 
trast, always  an  element  of  interest,  is  gained  by  j 
this  arrangement.  "^ 

The  use  of  walls,  gates,  stairways,  balustrades, 
and  other   constructive   and   decorative   features 
concerns  the  landscape-designer  as  much  as  the 
architect,  and  he  has  every  right  to  use  them  as 
freely  as  plant  material  wherever  the  occasion 
warrants.     He  may  use  a  wall  instead  of  a  hedge, 
or    substitute    steps    for    a    grade   wherever   the       I 
formality  of  architectural  surroundings  seems  to       j 
demand.     Wliile  the  major  emphasis  is  here  laid 
upon  plant  material,  it  is  not  intended  in  the  least       I 
to  minimize  the  importance  of  architectural  feat-       I 
ures  in  landscape  work.  — y 


44  LANDSCAPE  GAEDENINO 

Naturalistic  planting  does  not  necessarily  imply 
the  use  of  tlie  informal  style,  nor  does  formal 
planting  necessitate  topiary  work  and  parterre 
bedding.  In  many  cases,  such  as  Thomas  Circle 
in  Washington,  D.  C,  bedding  plants  are  used  to 
their  best  advantage  amid  formal  surroundings. 
In  fact,  conditions  like  these  are  best  for  the  use 
of  bedding  plants,  inasmuch  as  they  will  withstand 
city  conditions,  and  on  account  of  their  formality 
and  very  evident  subordination  to  lines  and  forms, 
they  possess  the  requisite  stiffness  and  precision. 

Most  people,  when  seeing  a  bit  of  greenery, 
think  only  of  the  interest  of  the  plant  itself, 
whether  it  be  worthy  or  not.  The  idea  of  some- 
thing growing  finds  a  ready  response  anywhere, 
and  consequently  naturalistic  planting  within  city 
limits  would  detract  from  the  building  or  monu- 
ment with  which  it  was  associated.  Any  very  evi- 
dent grouping  and  clipping  of  bedding  plants  to 
produce  a  certain  definite  effect  leaves  no  doubt  in 
the  mind  of  the  beholder  as  to  just  what  the  effect 
was  which  the  designer  wished  to  produce,  irre- 
spective of  the  success  of  his  design. 

While,  theoretically,  the  trained  landscape-de- 
signer should  have  an  absolutely  free  hand,  and 
should  know  which  scheme  of  all  others  would  be 


DESIGN  45 

best  suited  to  Ms  problem,  the  tastes  of  his  client 
must  nevertheless  be  taken  into  consideration  to 
a  greater  or  less  extent.  Here  the  determining 
factor  will  be  the  balance  struck  between  the  tact- 
fulness  of  the  designer  and  the  obstinacy  of  the 
client. 

\(  Every  design  scheme  has  natural  limitations 
which  clip  the  wings  of  imagination,  and  the  tastes 
of  a  client  who  has  little  or  no  education  along 
esthetic  lines  is  a  limitation  second  to  none.  More- 
over, the  difficulty  will  be  increased  by  the  fact 
that  people  who  have  little  esthetic  development 
are  seldom  aware  of  this  lack.  If  the  designer  is 
able,  by  broad  training  and  experience,  to  produce 
in  such  circumstances  a  result  that  will  please  a 
comparatively  uneducated  taste,  and  yet  appeal  as 
beautiful  to  those  who  understand  the  subject,  it 
should  be  a  source  of  greater  satisfaction  to  him 
than  if  he  had  had  a  free  hand,  and  no  limitations 
with  which  to  cope.  A  designer  who  conceives  a 
scheme  without  consulting  his  client's  tastes  and 
wishes  will  meet  with  occasional  disappointments, 
and  he  certainly  deserves  to  do  so.  j 

All  types  of  design  deal  first  with  the  total  area 
of  the  problem  as  a  boundary  line.  In  the  formal 
type  this  area  is  to  be  cut  up  and  divided  into 


46  LANDSCAPE  GAEDENING 

smaller  areas  by  means  of  lines.  In  this  connec- 
tion, walls,  hedges,  walks,  or  bedding  (Fig.  8)  are 
considered  as  line-divisions.  The  line  is  there- 
fore the  dominant  factor  in  the  disposition  of  the 
areas  in  the  formal  type,  and  attention  is  paid 
rather  to  the  arrangement  of  the  material  em- 
ployed than  to  the  character  of  the  material  itself. 
Accordingly  the  areas  in  formal  design  are  close, 
compact,  and  severe,  and  the  planting  is  re- 
strained (Fig.  9).  The  idea  is  to  create  certain 
shapes  which  shall  serve  the  purposes  of  practica- 
bility and  beauty,  but  the  internal  composition  of 
these  masses  is  a  matter  of  decidedly  secondary 
importance.  It  is  a  design  of  form  rather  than  of 
color,  and  the  individual  interests  of  plants  are 
not  considered  of  much  moment. 

A  greater  freedom  characterizes  informal  de- 
sign both  in  its  arrangement  and  in  the  class  of  the 
material  used.  Line,  the  outlines  of  areas,  is  here 
considered  as  subordinate  to  the  mass  or  area  it- 
self, and  is  studied  only  after  the  areas  have  been 
placed  in  proper  relationships.  The  large  areas, 
whether  considered  as  planting  masses  or  as  open 
lawn,  may  be  moved  about  freely  so  as  to  appear 
to  the  best  advantage  within  the  limits  of  the  prop- 
erty before  the  character  of  their  own  boundaries 


I^'^^  "^  ^  ^  "^ 


H 


M  '•  "  "  "  II 


48  LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 

as  lines  is  determined  upon  (Fig.  10).  Of  course 
this  is  all  done  in  rough  preliminary  sketches,  only 
sufficiently  accurate  to  convey  the  idea. 

This  does  not  mean  that  there  should  be  a  care- 
less and  unstudied  use  of  line  in  informal  de- 
sign. On  the  contrary,  it  is  often  more  difficult 
to  design  satisfactory  lines  of  this  type.  Free- 
dom in  appearance  is  not  always  the  result  of 
spontaneity. 

Briefly,  the  major  differences  may  be  thus 
summed  up:  in  the  informal  school  line  is  deter- 
mined by  the  mass,  and  in  the  formal  school  it  is 
the  mass  which  is  determined  by  the  line. 

The  Japanese  school  of  landscape  is  often  dif- 
ferentiated from  the  formal  and  informal  types. 
It  will  be  found,  nevertheless,  upon  analysis,  to 
be  merely  a  strictly  informal  type  used  upon  such 
a  small  scale  as  to  give  the  appearance  of  formal- 
ity. It  is  a  design  of  irregularity,  but  very  highly 
conventionalized  (Fig.  11). 

The  popular  opinion  of  a  Japanese  garden 
seems  to  imply  the  presence  of  a  stone  lantern  or 
two,  a  few  irises,  a  straggly  wisteria,  and  enough 
water  to  *' explain"  the  presence  of  an  unstable 
bridge;  also  the  idea  seems  to  prevail  that  these 
need  not  be  at  all  in  harmony  w4th  their  surround- 


DESIGN  51 

f^  ings.  j  Now,  the  Japanese  garden  proper  is  a  very 
beautiful  and  carefully  constructed  thing,  the  re- 
sult of  years  of  traditions  and  Oriental  conven- 
tions of  life,  which  cannot  at  once  be  grasped  by 
the  Westerner,  but  will  richly  repay  a  careful 
_     study.    \ 

^^  Most  of  the  Japanese  gardens  found  in  this  part 
of  the  world  are  treated  f  addishly,  as  stage  prop- 
erty or  pieces  of  scenery,  and  consequently  they 
cannot  be  considered  as  the  outgrowth  of  condi- 
tions. In  fact,  some  essentially  Japanese  detail  is 
often  introduced  into  an  entirely  foreign  scheme — 
an  Italian  garden  for  instance — in  such  a  way  as 
to  spoil  both  the  intrinsic  beauty  of  the  detail  and 
^  the  whole  garden  scheme  as  well. 
Y^  If  a  carefully  designed  Japanese  garden  is  se- 
cluded, and  so  placed  as  to  be  seen  by  itself  alone, 
as  it  would  be  under  native  conditions,  it  can  be 
used  anywhere  for  its  individual  interest  and  pic- 
turesqueness.  It  cannot,  however,  be  used  as  a 
part  of  an  ordinary  garden  scheme  with  any  de- 
/     gree  of  satisfaction. 

.         In  both  the  formal  and  the  informal  types  there 

\    must  be  some  dominant  design  idea  with  which  the 

\    rest  of  the  scheme  must  be  harmonized,  and  this  is 

j   true  of  all  design,  as  has  already  been  insisted 


Figure    10.      INFORMAL   PLANTING   PLANS 


DESIGN  53 

upon.     This  is  the  principle  of  unity,  the  subordi- 
nation of  all  parts  to  the  main  scheme.  —4 

In  the  formal  type  of  planting,  architectural 
lines  will  probably  be  emphasized,  while  the  in- 
formal type  will  lay  greater  stress  upon  the  horti- 
cultural features. 

In  the  garden  at  Wilton  House,  for  example, 
the  architecture  is  quite  the  dominating  note,  the 
plants  being  used  simply  as  spots  of  color  for  dec- 
orative purposes  and  not  for  any  intrinsic  inter- 
est. The  very  formal  architectural  terrace  de- 
pends for  its  adornment  upon  statues  and  vases, 
and  descends  to  a  formal  inclosure,  which  is 
walled,  and  accented  in  like  fashion  with  vases  and 
statuary.  A  naturalistic  tree  bank  in  the  back- 
ground renders  the  accent  of  the  dividing-wall 
very  marked.  If  the  treatment  within  the  wall 
were  as  naturalistic  as  is  the  exterior  planting,  the 
wall  would  seem  entirely  useless  and  out  of  place. 
Any  planting  within  the  inclosure  must  appear  as 
restrained  and  severe  as  the  inclosing  wall,  or  it 
will  not  be  in  keeping  with  the  whole.  Con- 
versely, if  the  formal  planting  stopped  short  at  a 
naturalistic  tree  mass  without  any  defining  wall, 
there  would  be  a  shock.  But  the  problem  is  well 
handled.     The  space  is  divided  geometrically  by 


54  LANDSCAPE  GAEDENING 

walks,  with  sharply  accentuated  edges,  and  no 
matter  how  brilliant  the  colors  within  the  planting 
areas,  all  shapes  have  been  subordinated  to  archi- 
tectural lines,  and  no  plant  is  used  for  its  indi- 
vidual interest.  This  is  an  excellent  example  of 
restrained  planting. 

In  the  informal  Sargent  planting  at  Holm  Lea, 
Brookline,  Massachusetts  (Fig.  12),  it  will  be  seen 
that  Mr.  Sargent's  interest  as  a  botanist  has  led 
him  to  group  the  rhododendrons  about  the  pool  in 
such  a  way  as  to  focus  the  attention  upon  them, 
and  their  reflection  in  the  water  serves  to  enhance 
their  charm  by  doubling  the  effect  of  the  color 
mass.  Here,  of  course,  the  accent  is  horticul- 
tural. The  special  characteristic  of  the  rhodo- 
dendrons is  their  bright  blossom  masses  contrasted 
with  the  dark,  shining  texture  of  their  evergreen 
foliage.  This  is  admirably  brought  out  by  their 
setting  in  the  planting  scheme.  (See  Frontis- 
piece.) 

When  accent  is  required  in  a  horticultural  way, 
it  is  frequently  attained  by  the  use  of  a  plant  the 
distinguishing  characteristic  of  which  is  quite 
noticeably  different  from  those  of  the  plants 
which  form  its  setting.  Horticultural  accent  is 
secured  by  selecting  a  plant  the  characteristic  of 


DESMN  57 

wMcli  will  appear  to  the  best  advantage  under  the 
conditions  imposed  by  the  problem  in  hand.  The 
necessary  accent  may  accordingly  be  secured  by 
change  in  the  scale,  form,  texture,  color  (leaf, 
twig,  or  blossom)  where  mass  planting  is  con- 
cerned, and  by  more  elusive  qualities,  such  as  in- 
dividual leaf  shapes  and  twig  forms,  where  the 
plant  is  isolated.  In  massed  planting  the  accent 
must  be  strong.  If  the  prevailing  lines  of  a 
shrubbery  mass  are  low  and  rounded,  the  intro- 
duction of  a  Lombardy  poplar  or  two  will  give 
accent  by  change  of  scale  and  form  as  well.  A 
catalpa  will  give  accent  not  only  by  the  coarse 
texture  of  its  foliage,  but  by  the  large  masses  of 
white  blossoms  in  early  summer  and  the  still  more 
interesting  pods  in  the  autumn.  Both  the  texture 
and  the  color  of  the  purple  beech  recommend  its 
use  as  an  accent  plant.  On  account  of  brilliant 
autumn  coloring,  its  distinguishing  characteristic, 
the  tupelo-tree  is  often  planted  with  hemlocks,  to 
make  the  most  of  their  contrast.  Many  other  ex- 
amples might  be  given  of  similar  planting  prac- 
tices. 

A  thorough  knowledge  of  the  plants  at  one's 
disposal,  and  their  characteristics,  will  be  indis- 
pensable in  suggesting  means  of  accent  to  the  de- 


58  LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 

signer  when  he  is  considering  horticultural  ac- 
cents. As  a  rule,  the  nature  of  the  accent  is  first 
considered  in  the  abstract.  For  instance,  a 
scheme  might  require  an  accent  plant  which 
should  be  tall,  slender,  and  of  rough  texture,  with 
a  general  red  tone.  So  much  decided  upon,  it  is 
then  a  question  of  choosing  from  the  plant  mate- 
rials at  one's  disposal  the  variety  which  will  come 
nearest  to  satisfying  those  requirements. 

Since  the  use  of  line  differs  markedly  in  the  two 
schools,  it  results  that  in  the  formal  style  any 
change  of  line,  however  slight,  will  immediately 
affect  the  areas  in  their  integral  relations.  Every 
walk  and  plat  or  parterre  is  bounded  by  a  defi- 
nite, hard  dividing-line,  and  those  lines  are  the 
constructive  framework  of  the  design,  because 
they  are  always  placed  with  definite  relation  to 
axes. 

As  the  entire  design  may  be  seen  at  a  glance  in 
formal  work,  it  follows  that  the  mere  altering  of 
the  width  of  a  walk  will  change  the  proportions  of 
the  bordering  area,  and  the  divisional  propor- 
tions will  hence  assume  an  entirely  different  ap- 
pearance. Consequently,  where  an  example  of 
the  formal  type  has  been  successfully  carried  out, 
it  should  appear  so  complete  and  exact  as  not  to 


DESiaisr  61 

permit  of  any  change  in  the  shape  of  the  planting 
areas  or  the  width  of  the  walks. 

In  the  informal  type  considerable  changes  of 
outline  may  be  made  without  materially  altering 
the  general  appearance.  In  Figure  13  the  ar- 
rangement of  units  is  entirely  dissimilar,  and 
yet  the  appearance  in  elevation  would  not  vary 
much.  The  charm  of  informal  planting  is  closely 
bound  up  in  the  silhouette  of  its  elevation  from  all 
different  points  of  view;  therefore  the  outline  of 
the  plan  of  the  planting  masses  seldom  attracts 
much  attention.  Accordingly  the  width  of  plant- 
ing areas  in  informal  design  may  often  be  consid- 
erably changed,  when  necessary,  without  affecting 
the  general  scale. 

The  irregular  boundaries  of  informal  shrubbery  - 
masses  may  easily  be  altered  even  to  the  extent  of 
moving  them  several  feet  to  give  greater  freedom 
of  approach,  or  for  some  other  utilitarian  pur- 
pose, without  causing  any  marked  change  of  ap- 
pearance in  the  masses  themselves. 

The  formal  type,  where  the  whole  garden 
scheme  is  perceived  at  a  glance,  is  successful  or 
not  chiefly  on  account  of  its  plan,  but  the  strength 
of  the  informal  type  lies  largely  in  elevation. 

Since  the  final  result  of  every  design  must  be  a 


DESIGN  63 

balance,  the  whole  process  of  designing  is  toward 
this  end.  The  balance  is  either  very  regular  and 
striking — understood  at  a  glance,  as  in  a  geomet- 
rical figure — or  it  may  be  more  a  matter  of  grad- 
ual appreciation,  as  in  a  Japanese  print. 

These  two  types  of  balance,  the  obvious  or  sym- 
metrical, and  the  occult  or  unsymmetrical,  are 
illustrated  respectively  by  the  formal  and  in- 
formal schools  (Fig.  14),  and  the  balances  are 
perceptible  both  in  plan  and  elevation.  Formal 
arrangements  are  generally  geometrical,  simple 
and  symmetrical,  so  far  as  the  structural  lines  are 
concerned,  while  the  informal  are  more  complex, 
irregular,  and  seldom  in  the  least  symmetrical. 
Formal  arrangements  are  generally  in  pairs, — 
that  is,  are  bilaterally  sjrmmetrical, — ^while  no  ex- 
act similarity  will  appear  in  an  informal  one. 
The  general  primness  imposed  by  geometrical 
figures  is  exactly  in  keeping  with  the  spirit  of  a 
formal  garden,  but  is  quite  at  variance  with  an  in- 
formal scheme,  the  charm  of  which  lies  often  in  a 
sort  of  waywardness. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  informal  design 
depends  upon  details  and  is  generally  seen  in 
parts ;  it  may  consequently  consist  of  a  number  of 
more  or  less  independent  balances  which  should  of 


64  LANDSCAPE  GAEDENING 

course  appear  complete,  though  none  of  them  will 
be  symmetrical.  The  formal  scheme,  presenting 
one  large  and  very  obvious  balance,  may  be  seen 
in  its  entirety  at  a  glance. 

All  design  is  based  upon  repetition,  and  all  de- 
sign is  consequently  similar  in  so  far  as  its  appear- 
ance is  affected  by  the  laws  of  repetition.  The 
diversity  of  the  materials  employed  to  express  the 
laws  of  repetition  in  different  forms  of  design  is 
that  which  confuses  the  beginner. 

The  laws  of  repetition  may  be  divided  into  three 
principal  parts:  sequence  or  simple  repetition, 
rhythm,  and  balance. 

A  design  should  first  of  all  possess  unity ;  that  is 
to  say,  it  should  ''hang  together,"  and  not  appear 
as  a  jumble  of  separate  parts.  This  necessitates 
at  the  outset  a  certain  amount  of  repetition,  and 
in  consequence  it  is  necessary  that  some  one  ele- 
ment be  common  to  all  parts  of  the  design.  Of 
course,  if  too  many  elements  are  possessed  in  com- 
mon, there  will  be  no  variety,  and  the  result  will  be 
perfectly  monotonous.  Repetition  applies  to  the 
forms,  sizes,  colors,  and  positions  of  all  materials 
used  (Fig.  15). 

It  is  not  necessary  that  plant  materials  should 
be  alike  in  all  respects,  but  only  that  more  of  their 


Figure    14.      INFORMAL   AND   FORMAL   BALANCES 


66  LANDSCAPE  GAEDENING 

characteristics  should  be  alike  than  not,  in  order 
to  secure  conditions  of  sufficient  monotony  to  pro- 
duce an  appearance  of  quiet  and  rest. 

When  architectural  features  are  used  as  gar- 
den accessories,  or  to  fulfil  some  similar  function, 
it  is  not  necessary,  or  indeed  really  desirable,  that 
all  be  exactly  alike.  The  general  masses  should  be 
the  same,  but  the  details  may  differ  considerably. 
The  large  shapes,  by  their  similarity  of  appear- 
ance, will  insure  the  unity  of  the  design,  while  the 
different  fancies  indulged  in  their  details  will  claim 
the  attention  and  give  a  charm  of  variety  in  such 
fashion  that  the  element  of  variety  will  not  con- 
flict with  the  main  idea. 

On  both  sides  of  some  of  the  long  leafy  avenues 
of  Versailles  statues  occur  at  regular  intervals 
for  considerable  distances,  serving  to  act  as  ac- 
cents, and  to  emphasize  the  idea  of  distance  by 
calling  attention  to  the  perspective.  The  statues 
tell  as  light  masses  against  a  dark  background 
from  a  slight  distance,  but  on  closer  examination 
all  are  found  to  be  different,  each  attracting  by  its 
individual  charm. 

If  the  balance  achieved  in  a  design  is  the  result 
of  monotonous  repetitions  only,  it  will  be  a  sort  of 
lifeless  thing,  a  static  equilibrium.     If  rhythm  is 


DESIGN"  67 

introduced,  however,  a  dynamic  equilibrium  will 
result,  giving  to  the  design  a  new  vitality. 

Rhythm  is  the  enlivening  quality  in  design,  and 
embodies  the  idea  of  change  or  progression;  it  is 
usually  produced  by  changes  of  sufficient  regular- 
ity to  lead  the  eye  in  one  direction  or  the  other,  re- 
fusing to  let  it  come  to  a  full  stop. 

A  perfect  example  of  rhythm  in  nature  is  the 
rolling  surface  of  the  ocean,  with  all  its  waves  re- 
curring at  regular  intervals,  but  nevertheless 
carrying  the  eye  in  one  direction  with  a  powerful 
sense  of  motion.  If  one  looks  down  a  long  avenue 
of  trees  of  regular  height,  the  diminishing  per- 
spective creates  a  powerful  pull  upon  the  atten- 
tion, and  the  gaze  is  focused  at  the  distant  point 
where  they  seem  to  meet.  A  rhythmic  setting  of 
this  sort  is  used  for  special  features  on  a  larger 
scale,  for  it  is  a  well-established  custom  to  place 
an  imposing  structure  at  the  end  of  a  regular 
vista. 

Carpeau's  fountain  (Fig.  16)  is  at  the  front  of 
a  vista,  and  yet  the  enframing  trees  set  it  off  pow- 
erfully in  the  same  fashion.  The  rhythm  in  this 
case  is  due  entirely  to  perspective. 

Rhythmic  quality  may  appear  in  lines,  in  the 
shapes  of  areas,  or  in  colors.     It  may  be  a  recur- 


Figure    15.      EEPETITION"   OF   SIMILAR   TREE    FORMS,    HILL-TOP, 
FIE  SOLE,    ITALY 


DESIGN  69 

rence  of  accents  which  must  differ  sufficiently  to 
express  development,  or  it  may  be  an  undulating 
line  like  a  river-bank,  which  compels  the  attention 
to  follow  it. 

The  growth  of  plants  is  always  rhythmic;  the 
boundary  of  an  informal  walk  should  be.  The 
word  rhj^thm  has  been  used  in  so  many  different 
ways  that  it  has  a  number  of  loose  connotations, 
but  for  the  purpose  of  landscape  design,  as  treated 
in  this  book,  rhythm  will  mean  the  regular  recur- 
rence of  an  accent  of  some  sort,  which  entails  the 
idea  of  change.  Repetition — sequence,  rhythm, 
and  balance — is  the  foundation  of  design. 

In  solving  a  practical  landscape  problem,  repe- 
tition is  not  taken  into  consideration  until  its  ap- 
pearances are  to  be  determined,  and  this  cannot  be 
done  until  the  economic  side  of  the  question  is  set- 
tled. First  will  come  the  arrangement  of  all  the 
parts  for  the  greatest  practicability,  and  this  is 
fixed  in  designing  the  plan.  The  study  of  this 
plan  means  the  arrangement  of  all  its  elements  in 
such  a  way  as  to  obtain  the  maximum  of  practical 
and  esthetic  fitness.  It  is  the  plan  which  deter- 
mines finally  the  position  of  all  the  members  of  the 
design. 

The  first  thing  to  decide  will  be  position  of 


70  LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 

buildings  and  architectural  features,  both  in  rela- 
tion to  each  other  and  to  the  surrounding  land- 
scape. In  studying  the  positions  of  the  architec- 
ture, pleasing  views  must  be  taken  advantage  of, 
and  objectionable  ones  eliminated  as  far  as  possi- 
ble. One  does  not  care  to  gaze  from  his  library 
window  upon  a  populous  and  curious  chicken- 
yard,  nor  yet  upon  a  collection  of  service  build- 
ings, no  matter  how  neatly  they  may  be  kept.  A 
railroad,  newly  made  land,  or  slatternly  neighbors 
may  require  *' screening,"  for  one  should,  wher- 
ever possible,  look  out  upon  pleasant  surround- 
ings. This  is  called  the  design  of  the  "off-scape," 
and  is  of  the  utmost  importance. 

Medieval  castles,  wherever  possible,  were  built 
upon  rocky  peaks,  as  much  for  ease  of  defense  as 
to  allow  their  owners  a  wide  survey  of  the  sur- 
rounding country,  in  order  to  recognize  the  ap- 
proach of  danger  at  some  distance.  Although 
they  conmianded  a  remarkable  view,  it  is  quite 
probable  that  it  had  no  esthetic  appeal  to  the  "rob- 
ber barons." 

Defensibility  in  the  Italian  hillside  gardens  was 
no  object,  but  the  view  was,  and  the  garden  was 
consequently  placed  in  a  commanding  position. 
The  result,  so  far  as  location  is  concerned,  is  the 


DESIGN  71 

same  in  both  cases,  although  the  determining  fac- 
tors were  practicability  on  the  one  hand,  and  pleas- 
ure purposes  on  the  other. 

After  some  idea  of  the  general  requirements  of 
the  problem  in  hand  has  been  gained  and  the  build- 
ings have  been  located,  the  next  important  step  is 
the  placing  of  the  principal  areas, — the  kitchen- 
gardens,  service-courts,  stable-yards,  and  so  on,  in 
regard  to  their  greatest  usefulness  and  availabil- 
ity. The  position  of  these  larger  units  will  then 
determine  the  placing  of  the  smaller  masses  that 
are  generally  of  greater  esthetic  interest,  and  are 
intended  to  bear  close  scrutiny. 

The  next  consideration  is  the  circulation;  that 
is,  the  disposition  of  walks,  drives,  and  ap- 
proaches. The  careful  placing  of  these  is  most  es- 
sential, as  they  determine  the  points  of  view  from 
which  the  design  is  to  be  visible,  and  esthetically 
are  consequently  of  the  utmost  importance.  If 
they  are  not  likewise  laid  out  in  a  practical  fash- 
ion,— ^that  is  to  say,  so  as  to  facilitate  progress  and 
to  segregate  traffic  of  a  utilitarian  nature, — ^paths 
will  be  worn  over  grass  plots  in  a  manner  most  dis- 
turbing to  the  designer,  though  he  should  really 
accept  the  situation  meekly  as  a  well-merited  re- 
buke. 


72  LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 

The  basis  of  the  design  scheme  in  every  piece  of 
landscape  work  is  geometrical,  whether  symmet- 
rical or  not,  and  the  first  consideration  in  design- 
ing the  circulation  is  the  handling  of  the  traffic  in 
the  most  convenient  way.  Once  laid  out,  the  lines 
of  traffic  determine  the  disposition  of  the  planting 
masses  and  open  areas,  and  have  therefore  a  dou- 
ble significance.  Particularly  is  this  true  of  for- 
mal design,  because  the  interdependence  of  cir- 
culation and  planting  is  very  evident  in  this  type 
of  work;  a  formal  design  looks  either  right  or 
wrong  at  first  glance. 

Informal  divisions  allow  much  more  latitude 
than  the  formal  because  experience  has  shown  that 
the  number  of  satisfactory  ways  in  which  rectan- 
gles may  be  formally  divided  is  few.  Although 
curved  lines  are  sometimes  employed  in  the  formal 
style,  straight  lines  are  characteristic,  and  the  an- 
gles are  generally  90°. 

In  the  accompanying  illustrations,  rectangles 
are  showm  in  formal  and  informal  divisions.  In 
Figure  17  the  square  is  divided  symmetric- 
ally. Numbers  one  and  three  show  ways  of  di- 
viding by  simple  lines,  and  number  two  is  a  com- 
bination of  the  motives  found  in  one  and  three. 
It  will  be  noticed  that  all  the  lines  are  parallel 


Figure    16.       GAKl'EAu's    FOUNTAIN,    LUXEMBOURG    GARDENS,    PARIS 


DESIGN  75 

with  the  sides  of  the  square.  These  lines  may  also 
be  parallel  with  the  diagonals,  which  gives  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  variety,  although  the  scheme  is 
virtually  the  same,  and  sometimes  both  may  be 
found  in  combination  where  the  scheme  is  large 
(see  Fig.  8).  The  methods  of  division  shown  in 
Figure  17  seem  to  be  the  only  satisfactory  ones  for 
the  formal  subdivision  of  squares. 

Where  oblongs  are  divided  parallel  with  their 
sides,  the  line  of  division  across  the  short  dimen- 
sion does  not  often  occur  in  the  middle.  This  is 
seen  in  numbers  four  and  six.  Number  four  is  a 
scheme  frequently  employed  where  a  feature  is 
introduced  at  the  intersection  of  the  axes.  A 
spectator  who  is  on  the  greater  division  of  the  long 
axis,  in  looking  toward  the  cross  axis,  is  likely  to 
think  that  the  cross  axis  bisects  the  plot,  and  thus 
an  appearance  of  greater  distance  is  imagined. 
Where  the  area  thus  divided  is  restricted,  the  de- 
vice is  often  very  useful. 

Another  frequent  method  of  division  is  based 
upon  two  cross-axes,  as  in  number  six.  Other 
subdivisions  such  as  those  in  numbers  seven,  eight, 
and  nine  are  applications  of  numbers  two  and 
three.  Subdivisions  by  geometrical  lines  are  very 
simple  in  the  formal  style,  but  all  sorts  of  elabora- 


Tfi£  GEOMETRICAL   bAJlJ    OF    THE 
PLAN    IN   LANDfCAPE.    D^IGN 


4  5 


RncrANOLE; 

7  8 


klctangle; 


1  2  5 


6 
9 


Figure    17.      THE    GEOMETRICAL   BASIS    OF   THE    PLAN"   IX   FORMAL 

DESIGN 


DESIGN  77 

tion  within  the  main  divisions  may  be  made  by 
parterre  bedding. 

The  subdivisions  of  rectangular  plots  in  the  in- 
formal style  (Fig.  18)  is  a  much  more  difficult 
task,  and  one  which  has  not  been  crystallized  into 
definite  form.  Every  division  is  made  solely  on 
its  own  merits,  considering  it  in  relation  to  its  sur- 
roundings. The  points  of  entrance  to  such  a  plot 
are  located  and  numbered  according  to  their  rela- 
tive importance,  which  depends  upon  the  number 
of  people  that  uses  them,  and  the  frequency  with 
which  they  are  used.  If  there  are  two  points  be- 
tween which  the  greatest  amount  of  passing  will 
occur,  the  path  or  drive  between  them  should  be 
fairly  direct,  in  order  to  save  time  and  annoyance. 

In  Figure  A  the  three  entrances  marked  1  are 
of  equal  importance,  but  there  is  another  entrance 
(2)  which  is  occasionally  used.  The  comparative 
infrequency  of  use  of  2  does  not  warrant  a  path 
directly  across  to  1  on  the  opposite  side,  although 
it  does  necessitate  a  curving  of  the  path  between 
the  other  two  points  in  order  to  allow  easy  access 
to  the  exits  on  each  side. 

In  Figure  B  there  are  several  entrances,  with 
three  degrees  of  importance.  It  is  necessary  for 
the  paths  to  connect  the  most  important  entrances 


78  LANDSCAPE  GAEDENINa 

(1)  without  much  deviation.  This  brings  the  cir- 
culation near  to  points  2  and  3,  which  may  be  con- 
nected without  much  trouble.  Point  4  is  not  im- 
portant enough  to  warrant  the  deflection  of  the 
path  between  points  1,  and  consequently  it  has 
been  given  a  separate  communication.  The  same 
principles  have  been  followed  in  the  laying  out  of 
Figure  C. 

A  garden  may  be  so  designed  as  to  become  a  part 
of  the  household  for  use  as  a  sort  of  outdoor  room 
(Figs.  9  and  53).  A  room  of  any  description 
must  be  more  or  less  formal  in  its  bounding  lines, 
and  if  too  great  a  change  is  experienced  in  passing 
from  the  house  to  the  garden,  there  will  be  no  feel- 
ing of  unity.  Consequently  a  garden  of  this  sort 
is  bound  to  bear  the  stamp  of  the  formal  type.  If 
the  garden  is  considered  by  itself  as  one  of  a  num- 
ber of  areas,  however,  it  may  be  informal,  but  its 
type  will  none  the  less  surely  be  decided  by  the 
limiting  conditions  of  the  problem. 

After  the  circulation  is  settled,  comes  the  loca- 
tion of  the  utilitarian  and  esthetic  planting,  and 
the  question  of  position  and  extent.  The  utilita- 
rian planting  is  placed  where  it  will  achieve  its 
greatest  economic  usefulness,  and  the  esthetic 
where  it  will  give  the  greatest  amount  of  pleasure ; 


THE  G£OMETK.ICAL  ^W  Of  THE  PLAN 
IN  LANp^(2^  C^iGN 

A 


■ 

^yA 

^^^j/'    V 

4 

<'^         /I     V" 

\     /     /       \  \ 

x^       /          1    \ 

1^ 

^---^   /    \         1    / 

^*"'*7'*^>^^  \     1  / 

^ 

/      *^.y 

INFORMAL 
B 


?    .c 


Figure    18.      THE    GEOMETRICAL   BASIS   OF   THE    PLAN"   IN   INFORMAL 

DESIGX 


80  LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 

but  one  must  continually  bear  in  mind  the  over- 
lapping of  these  two  features,  and  judge  every  so- 
lution from  both  points  of  view.  Planting  de- 
pends directly  upon  the  circulation,  because  it 
directs  the  gaze  of  those  who  use  the  walks  and 
drives  in  directions  chosen  by  the  designer,  and 
screens  service  roads  that  might  present  objec- 
tionable features. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  composition  of  the  plant- 
ing masses  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  the 
thoughtful  and  satisfactory  location  of  areas. 
Balance,  rhythm,  and  repetition  enter  here  as 
dominant  factors  in  the  design,  when  it  is  first  con- 
sidered in  the  abstract. 

The  axes  in  all  design  are  very  important,  al- 
though so  far  as  general  appearances  are  con- 
cerned, they  do  not  figure  as  prominently  in  the 
informal  design  as  the  formal. 

An  axis  is  a  geometrical  line — the  major  struc- 
tural line  of  a  design — about  which,  and  in  rela- 
tion to  which,  all  the  parts  are  arranged.  There 
are  primary  and  secondary  axes.  The  primary 
axis  is  the  one  of  greatest  importance,  and  the 
secondary  axes,  of  which  there  are  several,  are  ar- 
ranged in  harmonious  relations  with  it.  When 
an  *' existing  axis"  is  spoken  of,  the  meaning  is 


DESIGN  81 

that  all  the  elements  of  the  subject  under  consid- 
eration are  arranged  in  such  a  manner  as  to  make 
clearly  evident  the  dominance  of  the  axial  line  and 
its  position. 

Axes  may  exist  on  account  of  conditions  or  they 
may  be  created.  In  the  most  ordinary  form  of 
landscape  design  the  axis  of  a  view  from  a  window 
or  doorway  is  chosen  as  the  major  structural  axis 
of  the  design,  and  this  is  emphasized  by  planting. 

Existing  axes — that  is,  axes  that ^ are  at  once  ap- 
parent— may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  that  which 
is  perceived  from  the  inside  of  the  house,  and  that 
which  is  perceived  from  the  outside.  Focus  along 
axial  lines  in  the  first  case  is  brought  about  by  the 
enframement  of  a  window,  a  door,  or  a  terrace; 
and  some  object  of  interest,  usually  called  a  "fea- 
ture," is  generally  placed  on  the  axis  to  insure 
stability  and  emphasis.  In  looking  from  a  win- 
dow at  an  informal  scheme,  however  naturalistic 
the  planting  may  be,  there  is  frequently  either  a 
sun-dial,  or  some  other  architectural  or  sculptural 
feature,  set  directly  on  the  axis.  It  serves  to  at- 
tract the  gaze,  and  unconsciously  satisfies  the  mind 
in  regard  to  the  underlying  structural  lines. 
Where  the  axis  is  perceived  from  the  outside,  it  is 
usually  made  to  coincide  with  the  axis  of  a  view  or 


82  LANDSCAPE  GAEDENING 

a  vista  of  some  sort  which  focuses  upon  a  distant 
valley  and  mountain,  a  river  or  a  village. 

In  designing  the  planting  for  a  scheme,  existing 
axes  must  always  be  taken  into  consideration,  and 
where  axes  are  to  be  created,  not  having  existed  be- 
fore, they  are  the  first  things  to  be  decided  upon  in 
determining  the  proportions  of  the  design.  Cre- 
ated axes  are  almost  always  found  in  formal 
planting,  particularly  in  the  formal  garden,  where 
their  position  is  frequently  emphasized  by  the 
parallel  direction  of  walks  or  drives.  Sometimes 
they  will  cross  at  right  angles.  Since  the  axis  is 
considered  the  backbone  of  the  design  scheme,  it 
would  seem  very  strange  to  have  a  main  drive,  un- 
less there  were  one  on  each  side,  run  parallel  with 
it  rather  than  along  it,  for  this  would  destroy,  in 
the  eye  of  the  spectator,  the  idea  of  symmetry,  al- 
ways an  essential  in  formal  design. 

The  material  used  will  probably  be  grouped  ac- 
cording to  the  above  study  of  axes,  directing  the 
eye  toward  some  distant  object  of  interest.  Very 
often,  however,  a  fountain,  a  statue,  or  a  building 
is  placed  at  the  intersection  of  major  and  minor 
axes.  In  fact,  anything  the  individual  interest  of 
which  is  sufficient  to  repay  the  attention  may  be 
used  here  as  an  accent. 


DESIGN  83 

In  a  much  less  symmetrical  way  in  informal  de- 
sign plant  material  is  used  to  enframe  views  wMch 
determine  axes ;  for  informal  axes,  as  has  recently 
been  pointed  out,  are  generally  determined  by 
views  from  within  or  without  the  house,  as  the  case 
may  be.  Plant  material  is  sometimes  used  on  an 
axis  where  some  one  definite  point  is  to  be  accen- 
tuated, but  accent  material  is  always  employed  for 
this  purpose.  In  formal  design  the  positions  of 
the  axes  determine  the  positions  of  all  walks  and 
the  placing  of  all  garden  accessories. 

Every  problem,  when  finished,  should  have  posi- 
tive qualities,  a  certain  character  of  its  own. 
There  should  be  no  doubt  in  the  mind  of  the  spec- 
tator as  to  what  the  desired  effect  is,  and  it  should 
be  perceived  directly.  It  must  not,  of  course,  as- 
sault the  intelligence  of  the  beholder  and  clamor 
for  attention,  but  should  nevertheless  tell  its  story 
and  accomplish  its  purpose  in  a  straightforward 
fashion. 

Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  had  something  to  say  in 
connection  with  painting  that  will  apply  with 
equal  force  to  landscape : 

The  great  end  of  the  art  is  to  strike  the  imagination.  The 
painter  therefore  is  to  make  no  ostentation  of  the  means  by 
which  this  is  done;  the  spectator  is  only  to  feel  the  result  in 


84  LANDSCAPE  GAEDENING 

his  bosom.  An  inferior  artist  is  unwilling  that  any  part  of  his 
industry  should  be  lost  upon  the  spectator.  He  takes  as  much 
pains  to  discover  as  the  greater  artist  does  to  conceal  the 
marks  of  his  subordinate  assiduity.  In  works  of  the  lower 
kind,  everything  appears  studied,  and  encumbered;  it  is  all 
boastful  art  and  open  affectation.  The  ignorant  often  part 
from  such  pictures  with  wonder  in  their  mouths,  and  indiffer- 
ence in  their  hearts. 

In  a  way,  every  landscape  problem  that  conies 
up  is  a  law  unto  itself,  and  yet  all  successful  land- 
scape schemes  have  obeyed  the  general  laws  of  de- 
sign. The  most  essential  things  to  bear  in  mind 
are,  first,  the  fitness  of  the  design  for  its  function, 
the  subordination  of  all  details  to  the  general  idea, 
and  finally  a  careful  working  out  of  these  details 
in  such  a  way  as  to  enhance  the  first  favorable  im- 
pression which  has  been  gained  without  close 
scrutiny. 

Whatever  the  problem  in  hand,  and  whatever 
the  medium  employed,  the  primary  requisite  of 
good  design  is  fitness  for  the  function  which  it  is 
to  perform. 


Ill 

COLOR 

All  objects  perceived  by  man,  wbether  natural  or 
artificial,  are  visible  because  of  their  color,  and 
because  of  that  alone.  A  thing  is  visible  because 
it  is  darker  or  lighter  than  something  beside  or 
behind  it  or  is  of  a  different  hue,  and  the  shape  of 
its  color  mass  gives  the  idea  of  form.  This  form 
is  often  expressed  by  means  of  a  line  drawn  with 
pencil,  pen,  or  brush,  though  there  is  nothing  in 
nature  which  really  warrants  the  use  of  such  a 
line,  as  everything  is  perceptible  by  masses,  and 
these  masses  consist  of  varying  amounts  of  differ- 
ent colors.  The  long-established  conventions  of 
drawing  have  enabled  us  to  perceive  the  idea  of 
objects  when  their  outlines  alone  are  represented, 
and  this  abstraction  has  given  rise  to  what  is 
termed  '^ line-drawing,"  or  drawing  in  outline. 
The  imagination  of  the  spectator,  relying  upon 
memory,  fills  in  these  outlines  with  the  proper  col- 
ors, and  thus  the  drawing  indicates  reality.  These 
outlines,  however,  are  in  themselves  abstractions, 

85     • 


86  LANDSCAPE  GAEDENING 

and  like  nothing  else  in  nature.  In  drawing  pro- 
cesses, then,  it  is  the  color  shape  that  is  indicated 
by  the  drawn  lines. 

One  element  of  color,  dark  and  light,  is  perhaps 
most  important  in  the  perception  of  objects,  and 
this  darkness  and  lightness  is  known  as  value. 

At  night  one  does  not  perceive  objects  readily 
because  the  absence  of  light  has  minimized  value 
contrasts,  making  the  objects  appear  imiform  in 
color,  and  where  color  differences  are  not  per- 
ceived, individuality  is  lost.  On  a  moonlight 
night  the  principal  perceptions  are  of  ''values," — 
that  is,  lights  and  darks, — with  other  slightly  dif- 
fering color  qualities  added.  The  shadows  are  all 
a  sort  of  deep  violet  black,  and  the  ''high-lights"  a 
greenish  yellow.  Forms  are  consequently  seen 
only  in  their  larger  relationships  where  they  are 
relieved  by  shadow,  but  in  the  shadow  itself  all 
detail  is  lost,  because  there  is  insufficient  light  to 
make  color  distinctions. 

Where  the  light  conditions  are  such  as  to  make 
colors  easily  perceptible,  the  color  viewed  ab- 
stractly is  of  more  importance  than  the  form,  for 
it  repels  or  attracts  more  readily  than  any  other 
one  element  of  design. 

Color  is  divided  into  three  parts,  value,  hue,  and 


COLOR 


87 


intensity,  and  into  these  parts  any  color  may  be 
finally  analyzed.*  Value,  as  has  been  said,  is  the 
lightness  or  darkness  of  a  color,  without  taking 
into  consideration  the  hue  or  intensity. 

The  hue  of  a  color  is  its  individuality, — the  qual- 
ity which  gives  it  a  name,  such  as  red,  blue,  or 


Figure    19.       DIAGRAM    OF    COMPLEMENTARY 
COLORS 

green.  Hue  differentiates  colors  of  the  same 
value  and  intensity.  Its  gradations  may  be  very 
slight;  for  instance,  a  number  of  colors  may  be 
chosen  any  one  of  which  would  unhesitatingly  be 
pronounced  ^'blue,"  and  yet  upon  comparison  it 
will  be  seen  that  no  two  are  alike. 

*  Cf.  "A  Text-Book  of  Design,"  Kelley  and  Mowll,  pp.  106  et  seq. 


88  LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 

Color  names,  unfortunately,  are  loosely  applied, 
and  the  painters  call  hues  by  names  Avhich  mean 
nothing  to  the  dry-goods  dealer  who  is  evolving 
new  colors  (in  name  at  least)  every  year  to  satisfy 
the  demands  of  his  fair  patrons  for  something 
new.  The  horticulturists  use  a  still  different 
terminology,  and,  sad  to  relate,  are  rather  careless 
about  it,  too.  On  account  of  the  all-pervasive 
looseness  in  color  characterization,  it  has  seemed 
best  to  keep  the  color  names  in  this  book  as  simple 
and  definite  as  possible. 

Intensity  is  the  brilliancy  of  a  color,  and  its  op- 
posite may  be  called  neutrality.  Imagine  two 
blossoms  of  the  same  hue,  such  as  blue,  for  instance. 
They  are  of  the  same  value ;  one  is  neither  lighter 
nor  darker  than  the  other ;  one  is  a  bright  blue  and 
the  other  is  a  dull  blue,  which  is  merely  another 
way  of  saying  that  the  intensities  are  different. 
The  brighter  flower  has  the  greater  intensity.  A 
bright  color  in  unfavorable  surroundings  is  much 
more  offensive  than  a  dull  one;  consequently  it  is 
safer  to  use  brilliant  colors  sparmgly,  relying  on 
colors  of  less  intensity  for  the  greater  part  of  the 
scheme.  If  a  high  intensity  is  characteristic  of  a 
planting  scheme,  it  will  be  difficult  to  secure  an 
accent  color  unless  it  is  one  of  the  highly  special- 


COLOR  89 

ized  horticultural  varieties,  such  as  the  Japanese 
maples  and  varicolored  shrubs. 

Among  a  number  of  brilliantly  colored  plants 
all  clamoring  for  attention,  an  accent  plant  will 
have  to  be  very  powerful  indeed  in  order  to  make 
its  presence  felt.  Needless  to  say,  a  scheme  of  this 
sort  is  entirely  out  of  place  in  everyday  surround- 
ings. 

As  a  rule  it  is  much  more  satisfactory  to  restrict 
the  hues  and  intensities,  using  differing  values  for 
accent  purposes,  and  leaving  the  color  contrasts 
for  unusual  situations  and  effects. 

Colors  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  the  pri- 
mary colors,  red,  yellow,  and  blue,  from  which  all 
other  colors  are  made,  and  the  complementary 
colors,  often  called  secondaries.  Complementary 
colors  are  those  which  have  nothing  in  common, — 
giving  the  greatest  possible  color  contrasts. 
Every  color  has  its  complement  in  the  color  most 
unlike  it. 

The  complement  of  any  primary  color  is  a  sec- 
ondary which  is  composed  of  equal  visual  amounts 
of  the  other  two  primaries.  Conversely,  every 
secondary  color  has  as  its  complement  the  primary 
which  does  not  enter  into  its  composition.  In  the 
color  cycle   (Fig.  20)   the  complementary  colors 


90 


LANDSCAPE  GAEDENING 


appear  directly  opposite  one  another.  Red  and 
yellow,  mixed,  give  orange;  yellow  and  bine, 
green ;  blue  and  red,  purple  or  violet. 

If  complementary  pigment  colors  are  mixed  in 
equal  quantities,  each  kills  or  neutralizes  the 
other,  and  the  result  is  gray,  in  which  neither  of 
the  complements  is  traceable.  In  fact,  comple- 
mentary colors  are  so  antagonistic  that  they  will 
neutralize  one  another  if  used  in  anywhere  near 
equal  quantities.  On  the  other  hand,  they  may  be 
used  together  to  great  advantage  if  a  very  small 
amount  of  one  is  present.     In  this  case  there  is 


vulgam: 


Philadelphu'' 

COKONARia^'^ 

7\ND-K(\LL 


LANJANA 


LOMCEI^A 
JARJARICA 


Figure   20.      DIAGRAM   OF   SEASONAL   COLOR   CHANGES 


COLOR  91 

no  doubt  as  to  wMch  is  the  predominating  color, 
and  all  its  good  qualities  are  set  off  to  advantage 
by  the  presence  of  its  complement,  unlike  it  in 
every  respect.  Such  arrangements  are  very  stim- 
ulating. 

This  stimulus  is  frequently  taken  advantage  of 
in  winter  planting,  where  a  background  of  dark 
evergreens  is  relieved  and  brightened  by  the  bare 
red  branches  of  the  dogwood  (Cornus  siherius)  or 
berry-bearing  shrubs,  such  as  the  barberry,  with 
its  bright  red  clusters.  It  is  the  contrast  of  com- 
plementaries,  present  in  unequal  quantities,  that 
gives  so  festive  an  appearance  to  holly. 

Color  has  certain  well-established  psychological 
phenomena:  red  is  a  powerful  excitant;  blue  in 
large  quantities,  and  especially  violet,  is  depress- 
ing ;  while  the  greens  and  browns  are  quieting  and 
restful,  probably  because  we  perceive  so  many  of 
them  in  nature.  This  is,  of  course,  a  broad  gen- 
eralization, for  it  is  quite  possible  to  find  a  green 
that  has  a  most  disquieting  influence  and  a  red 
that  is  almost  soothing;  but  in  the  main  the  state- 
ment holds.  Of  course  these  effects  are  produced 
by  the  elimination  of  other  colors,  and,  as  de- 
scribed, will  not  often  be  noticeably  present,  but  if 
these  phenomena  are  kept  in  mind,  they  will  be 


92  LANDSCAPE  GAEDENING 

found  very  helpful  in  the  production  of  color  har- 
monies. The  landscape-designer  can  take  advan- 
tage of  these  facts  in  his  planting,  and  lend  a  vi- 
vacious or  sober  aspect  to  his  scheme  when  it  is 
desirable. 

Many  people  have  a  predilection  for  one  hue  or 
another.  One  may  fancy  red  particularly,  and 
another  may  prefer  purple.  There  are  often  in- 
herent color  antipathies.  When  a  person  says,  "I 
don't  like  blue,"  he  means  that  that  color,  apart 
from  its  surroundings,  is  distasteful  to  him.  But 
for  design  purposes  a  color  cannot  be  considered 
apart  from  its  surroundings. 

It  must  be  recognized  that  no  color  in  itself  is 
necessarily  disagreeable,  but  only  in  combination 
with  other  colors,  and  in  consequence  the  questions 
of  color  combinations  and  harmonizations  are  of 
the  utmost  importance.  The  colors  employed 
must  either  have  sufficient  of  the  complementary 
to  bring  out  salient  features — individualities  of 
hue — or  must  be  sufficiently  alike  to  present  one 
simple  idea.  > 

Color  appreciation  is  largely  a  matter  of  educa- 
tion, as  is  the  enjoyment  of  music.  Catchy  songs 
and  brilliant  colors  fall  in  the  same  class :  both  se- 
cure the  attention  with  greatest  ease,  but  do  not 


COLOR  93 

possess  enough  refinement  to  claim  an  educated 
taste  for  any  length  of  time.  All  the  elements  of 
attractiveness  are  pushed  at  one,  and  nothing  is 
left  for  later  discovery  and  enjoyment. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  the  taste  of  people 
who  become  interested  in  pictures  changes  rapidly 
as  their  familiarity  with  and  knowledge  of  them 
increases.  It  is  the  same  with  plants.  The  un- 
educated taste  requires  the  nerve-shattering  ac- 
cent of  the  round,  red  geranium  bed  in  the 
middle  of  the  front  lawn;  the  more  refined  taste 
much  prefers  the  simple  expanse  of  green,  with 
the  color  accents  relegated  to  the  border.  Bar- 
baric colors  may  be  cheerful,  but  they  certainly 
cannot  be  termed  restful. 

A  painter  of  landscapes,  one  who  designs  them 
on  canvas,  has  much  greater  freedom  than  does  the 
landscape-designer,  who  depends  for  all  his  effects 
upon  architectural  and  horticultural  material. 

If  the  painter  desires  to  change  a  color  slightly, 
he  mixes  another  color  with  it  to  produce  the  effect 
he  wishes.  That  resource  is  not  open  to  the  land- 
scape-designer. He  must  search  for  another 
plant  that  has  the  required  color  characteristic  in 
addition  to  other  essential  qualities,  and  there  may 
be  no  such  variety  as  he  wishes.    In  that  case  he 


94  LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 

must  re-design  his  problem  so  as  to  use  available 
material.  He  must  know  Ms  materials  so  thor- 
ougly  that  he  runs  no  danger  of  imagining  a 
charming  color  scheme  only  to  find  that  there  are 
no  plants  that  will  give  the  desired  result,  or  that 
such  plants  as  have  the  required  color  will  not 
grow  under  the  prescribed  conditions.  Necessa- 
rily, then,  the  horticultural  materials  are  more  re- 
stricted than  the  painter's  palette,  and  one  realizes 
that  the  gardens  of  Watteau  never  grew  or  could 
grow  as  he  painted  them  except  in  his  imagina- 
tion. 

Painters  often  use  a  desired  color  note  in  a 
shadow  when  it  is  best  that  it  be  not  too  prominent, 
but  even  this  is  usually  denied  to  the  landscape- 
designer.  His  leaves  and  blossoms  generally  re- 
quire sunlight,  and  comparatively  few  species  will 
grow  in  the  shade.  ''A  city  that  is  set  upon  an  hill 
cannot  be  hid."  Just  so  will  the  color  errors  in 
the  design  be  set  forth  in  all  their  hideousness  be- 
cause of  the  bright  light  upon  them. 

The  color  problem  of  the  landscape-designer  is, 
then,  the  combining  of  his  materials  to  the  best 
advantage.  His  colors  cannot  be  contrary  to  na- 
ture. They  are  made  to  his  hand,  unalterably 
fixed;  he  may  choose  or  reject,  but  that  is  his  only 


COLOR  95 

latitude.  Fortunately,  there  is  an  abundance  of 
plant  material  whicli  will  grow  in  any  temperate 
or  tropical  climate,  so  the  natural  limitations  will 
not  be  any  great  drawback. 

Since  no  color  can  rightfully  be  termed  ugly 
when  considered  by  itself  alone,  how  may  one  com- 
bine colors  to  the  best  advantage?  The  laws  of 
repetition  will  apply  here  exactly  as  they  did  to 
form. 

Colors  possessing  a  conmion  element  will  har- 
monize. Yet  here  are  also  glorious  possibilities 
for  color  clashes.  If  a  costume  contains  three  or 
four  different  kinds  of  red,  it  is  sure  to.  be  ugly. 
Nothing  could  be  worse  than  a  bed  of  geraniums 
of  several  different  reds  all  fighting  for  suprem- 
acy. To  be  sure,  they  possess  a  conunon  ele- 
ment, but  it  is  too  much  in  evidence.  If  of  two 
reds  of  much  the  same  value  and  intensity,  one  has 
a  leaning  toward  blue,  and  the  other  a  weakness 
for  yellow,  confusion  is  bound  to  result  if  they  are 
used  together.  It  is  much  the  same  as  close  har- 
mony in  music :  to  many  it  seems  discord.  A  very 
simple  means  of  color  analysis  will  prevent  mis- 
takes of  this  kind. 

A  color  may  usually  be  separated  into  two  parts, 
its  dominant  note  and  its  modifying  note,  the  lat- 


96  LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 

ter  its  suggestion  of  some  other  color.  A  yellow 
green  may  be  divided  into  a  large  amount  of  green 
and  a  lesser  amount  of  yellow. 

Consider  two  groups  of  colors,  one  with  the 
dominant  note  the  same  for  all  its  members,  but 
with  the  modifying  notes  different ;  the  other  with 
different  dominants,  but  possessing  the  same  mod- 
ifier. As  a  rule  the  first  group  will  clash  while  the 
second  will  harmonize.  From  this  it  may  be  de- 
duced that  where  color  plays  a  large  part,  the  dom- 
inant notes  should  possess  variety,  with  enough  of 
the  modifier  present  to  harmonize  them  and  pull 
them  together.  This  refers  of  course  only  to  col- 
ors of  high  intensity,  for  the  duller  tones  are  sel- 
dom inharmonious  in  combination.  This  is  be- 
cause they  possess  the  common  element  of  neutral- 
ity. 

In  the  design  chapter  it  was  said  that  the  final 
result  of  every  design  scheme  should  be  a  balance. 
The  balance  applies  to  color  as  well  as  to  form. 
This  does  not  necessarily  imply  that  the  same  color 
note  must  be  repeated  on  opposite  sides  of  the  de- 
sign,— ^there  is  no  chance  for  subtlety  in  such  a 
treatment, — ^but  it  means  that  the  color  accents  of 
whatever  sort,  though  quite  dissimilar,  must  form 
a  balance. 


COLOR  97 

Plant  colors  are  seen  in  leaf,  blossom,  fruit,  and 
twig  or  stem,  and  the  predominance  of  any  of 
these  elements  will  determine  the  color  value  of  the 
plant.  To  be  sure,  many  plants  are  interesting  in 
all  these  ways,  but  necessarily  at  different  seasons 
of  the  year.  Texture  of  the  plant  surfaces  will 
have  a  considerable  influence  on  the  color  value  of 
a  plant.  The  rhododendron  leaf  is  attractive  not 
only  on  account  of  its  dark,  warm  green  color,  but 
also  because  of  the  glossy  texture,  which  catches 
the  light  sharply,  making  brilliant  high  lights  and 
shadows,  and  giving  greater  variety  to  the  foliage 
color.  The  ''dusty  miller,"  because  of  its  rough 
surface,  and  the  common  velvety  mullein  have  a 
different  color  value  on  account  of  their  texture, 
which  catches  the  light  so  as  to  spread  a  *' bloom" 
over  the  surface,  and  the  result  is  that  the  natural 
colors,  at  a  slight  distance,  are  lessened  in  inten- 
sity and  neutralized. 

Plants  vary  in  color  value  as  their  distance 
from  the  observer  increases,  and  in  planning  the 
color  of  a  planting  scheme  it  is  well  to  bear  in 
mind  the  position  and  distance  from  which  the 
plants  are  to  be  viewed.  Distance  always  tends  to 
decrease  value  contrasts  and  to  add  blue  to  hues. 
Plants  that,  close  to  the  observer,  might  appear 


98  LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 

too  brilliant,  serve  well  to  emphasize  a  more  dis- 
tant point,  and  conversely  flowers  of  delicate  hue 
must  be  closely  viewed  in  order  to  produce  any  ef- 
fect. In  the  problem  chapter  (Fig.  42)  will 
be  seen  a  scheme  of  planting  in  which  the  di- 
mensions appear  to  have  been  increased  by  the 
use  of  bluer  foliage  hues  as  the  planting  recedes 
from  the  spectator. 

Green  is,  of  course,  the  most  common  and  sat- 
isfactory plant  color,  and  it  is  of  all  gradations 
and  varieties,  from  the  silvery  green  of  the  poplar 
to  the  russet  greens  of  the  sedges,  dark  and  light, 
intense  and  neutral.  The  other  plant  colors  may 
be  grouped  under  the  primaries,  red,  yellow,  and 
blue. 

Under  the  reds  will  come  pink,  which  is  only  a 
light  red,  scarlet,  crimson,  and  magenta;  under 
the  yellows,  greenish  yellow,  lemon  yellow,  and 
orange  yellow,  as  well  as  all  the  browns,  which  are 
really  deep  shades  of  orange  and  yellow.  The 
blues  vary  from  green-blue  at  one  extreme  to  pur- 
ples and  violets  at  the  other.  It  will  be  a  simple 
matter  to  group  plant  colorings  approximately  un- 
der these  heads. 

Each  of  the  seasons  has  its  own  peculiar  range 
of  colors,  and  therefore  it  should  be  easy,  in  look- 


COLOR  99 

ing  at  a  picture,  to  determine  by  the  season  colors 
tlie  time  at  wMch  it  was  planted. 

In  the  spring  the  greens  of  high  value  predomi- 
nate, with  a  strong  leaning  toward  the  yellow 
greens ;  yellows ;  light  blues ;  and  white  in  the  blos- 
soms. 

The  summer  is  least  interesting  of  all  in  color, 
for  most  of  the  greens  have  turned  dark  and  dull, 
and  there  is  little  color  accent;  but  wherever  an 
accent  occurs,  it  is  probably  stronger  than  spring 
color  would  be. 

In  the  autumn  there  is  an  immense  variety  of 
yellows,  oranges,  reds,  and  browns,  all  of  which 
contrast  beautifully  with  an  evergreen  back- 
ground. 

There  is  not  much  range  of  color  in  the  winter. 
The  evergreens  are  the  strongest  note  of  all,  and 
some  of  the  oaks  retain  their  leaves  till  spring, 
while  the  other  trees  have  only  their  twig  coloring, 
varying  from  gray  to  brown  as  a  rule.  There  are 
brilliant  exceptions  to  this  in  the  bright  red  and 
yellow  dogwoods,  and  in  all  the  berry-bearing 
shrubs,  which  now  appear  to  good  advantage,  sil- 
houetting their  clusters  against  the  dark  back- 
ground. 

A  "year-round"  garden  should  aim  at  a  color 


100  LANDSCAPE  GAEDENING 

interest  that  will  never  be  lost,  although  it  will 
progress  through  leaf,  blossom,  fruit,  and  twig, 
from  one  phase  to  another  as  the  seasons  change. 

The  seasonal  development  of  a  shrub  causes  it 
to  vary  its  color  in  a  regular  progression,  moving 
its  dominant  color  note  through  a  sort  of  cycle  of 
changes.  Plants  differing  widely  in  spring  foli- 
age approach  a  standard  green  in  late  summer,  to 
become  again  diversified  in  the  autumn.  This 
may  be  called  "color  rotation." 

While  plant  color  is  largely  green,  this  green 
will  incline  somewhat  toward  one  of  the  primaries, 
so  that,  regardless  of  species,  plants  may  be 
grouped  under  red,  blue,  yellow,  and  even  purple 
greens.  This  modifying  element  of  the  plant 
green  will  appear  most  strongly  at  the  beginning 
and  the  end  of  the  plant's  yearly  growth,  for  dur- 
ing the  summer  season  there  is  little  variety  in 
plant  greens  (Fig.  20).  The  Japanese  barberry, 
for  example,  sends  forth  reddish  buds,  which  grad- 
ually turn  into  the  dark,  dull  green  of  high  sum- 
mer; then  it  begins  another  change  toward  the 
brilliant  red  of  its  autumn  foliage.  There  has 
been  a  progression  or  rotation  from  red  through 
green  and  back  to  red  again.  The  Vihurnum  Ian- 
tana,  or  wayfaring  tree,  has  a  rotation  from  pur- 


COLOR  101 

pie  back  to  purple,  and  the  Forsythia  runs  the 
scale  of  yellow. 

There  is  a  fourth  class  still  which  does  not  come 
into  the  same  category,  its  autumn  coloring  being 
the  complementary  of  the  spring;  but  this  group- 
ing by  color  rotation  will  be  found  to  be  of  great 
assistance  to  the  landscape-designer.  Trees,  her- 
baceous plants,  and  vines  may  be  grouped  in 
the  same  fashion;  for  example,  the  Colorado  blue 
spruce,  the  Japanese  ivy,  and  the  willow. 

The  season  at  which  the  major  color  interest  is 
most  highly  developed  will  determine  the  princi- 
pal color  usefulness  of  the  plant. 

Color  planting  is  of  two  sorts;  one  to  produce 
unity,  and  the  other  accent,  though  all  accents 
should  be  unified  by  balance  of  attractiveness  if  not 
of  similar  color.  The  unity  will  be  secured  by  the 
predominance  of  either  value  or  hue.  Intensity 
at  its  highest  tends  to  differentiate  colors,  so  when 
the  opposite  of  intensity  or  neutrality  appears,  that 
is  also  a  unifying  element. 

Unification  is  only  a  matter  of  selection. 
Shrubs  may  be  chosen  according  to  their  values, 
light,  medium,  or  dark;  or  because  yellow,  red,  or 
blue  appears  as  a  modifying  element  in  all.  If 
both  one  value  and  one  hue  are  given  preference, 


102  LANDSCAPE  GAEDENING 

there  will  be  too  little  variety  (except  in  case  of 
formal  planting,  where  form  is  the  principal  con- 
sideration) ,  and  monotony  will  result. 

The  problem  may  be  stated  in  another  way:  if 
values  be  similar,  considerable  color  range  is  per- 
missible; and  if  the  colors  be  similar,  the  values 
need  not  be  restricted.  In  this  very  point  it  may 
be  seen  that  the  impress  of  a  designer's  person- 
ality and  sense  of  discrimination  may  be  stamped 
upon  a  garden,  for  Nature  does  not  discriminate, 
but  plays  all  the  trump-cards  possible  at  every 
turn.  Nature  limits  herself  only  by  conditions  of 
growth;  the  landscape-designer  should  be  less  ec- 
lectic. Unity  in  a  design  will  impress  the  be- 
holder with  a  sense  of  fitness  and  completeness. 

Accent  in  color  may  be  secured  in  two  ways, 
either  by  emphasizing  the  predominating  color  by 
a  strong  intense  note  of  the  same  hue  or  by  con- 
trasting a  complementary  hue  with  the  major 
color  note.  Of  the  two  methods  the  contrasting 
will  give  the  stronger  accent.  A  change  of  value 
will  increase  the  emphasis  in  both  cases.  Where 
the  contrasting  method  is  employed,  it  is  not  al- 
ways necessary  to  use  the  exact  complementary, 
or  greatest  possible  color  contrast,  for  sufficient 
accent  may  be  secured  without  going  to  such  an 


COLOR  103 

extreme.  It  is  merely  a  question  of  nice  adjust- 
ment, which  will  depend  largely  upon  the  good 
taste  of  the  designer. 

Since  accents  are  not  conducive  to  unity,  in  each 
planting  scheme  there  should  be  a  distinctly 
larger  amount  of  unifying  than  accent  planting. 
If  this  is  done,  the  accents  will  brighten  and  tone 
up  the  whole,  instead  of  seeming  to  struggle  for 
superiority.  This  is  where  the  layman  most  fre- 
quently errs;  his  planting  is  a  system  of  color  ex- 
clamations. 

Accents  should  never  appear  in  filler  shrubs, 
since  these  are  always  a  unifying  element  and 
should  not  be  disturbed;  the  accent  must  appear 
either  in  the  background  or  in  the  facer.  Where 
trees  to  be  seen  from  a  distance  require  accent,  it 
should  always  be  given  by  a  shrub  facing.  Even 
though  the  accent  colors  differ  widely  from  the 
rest  of  the  color  scheme,  it  will  be  of  advantage  if 
the  dominating  color  note  appears  in  them  to  a 
slight  extent.  This  will  insure  their  perfect 
amalgamation. 

If  a  planting  scheme  is  on  a  large  scale  and  di- 
vided into  distinctly  separate  parts,  it  will  often 
be  well  to  allow  the  accent  color  in  one  scheme  to 
predominate  in  another:  it  will  be  a  sufficiently 


104  LANDSCAPE  GAEDENINGl 

different  use  of  color  to  convey  an  entirely  differ- 
ent impression,  and  yet  it  will  not  necessitate 
dragging  in  still  other  colors,  and  working  out  ad- 
ditional schemes  of  harmonization. 

It  will  be  seen,  then,  that  every  color  scheme 
should  have  a  predominance  of  quiet  color. 
There  are  almost  always  excellent  opportunities 
for  accent,  but  these  should  be  treated  with  con- 
siderable reticence.  A  color  scheme  should  be 
restful  rather  than  stimulating. 


IV 

PLANTING 

A  THOEorGH  knowledge  of  plant  materials  and 
their  possible  uses  in  landscape  work  is  of  great 
importance  to  tlie  landscape-designer,  inasmuch 
as  most  of  the  effects  he  desires  to  create,  in  the 
working  out  of  any  problem  where  plants  are  em- 
ployed, depend  upon  the  intelligent  use  of  these 
plant  materials. 

In  a  large  way  topography  affects  the  design 
scheme,  and  this  topography  may  be  taken  without 
change,  as  it  occurs  in  the  problem,  or  it  may  be 
altered  to  suit  the  requirements  better.  This  al- 
teration will  depend  upon  the  extent  of  the 
scheme  at  hand  and  the  amount  of  money  to  be  laid 
out  upon  it. 

Planting  is  often  used  topographically  to  give 
effects  of  height  and  to  emphasize  or  obscure  ele- 
vations. In  the  diagram  showing  the  section  of 
hillside  planting  (Fig.  21)  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
scale  of  the  plant  materials  has  been  very  carefully 
arranged  to  take  advantage  of  the  topography. 

105 


106 


LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 


Plant  materials  are  used  in  various  ways,  ac- 
cording to  tlie  purpose  in  view ;  for  the  problem  of 
the  landscape-designer,  aside  from  determining 
more  or  less  the  general  characteristics  of  the  ar- 
chitecture present,  is  to  improve  the  landscape 
surroundings  of  the  building,  and  to  tie  them  and 


Figure    21.       HILLSIDE   PLANTING   TO    mODUCE    ILLUSIONS    OP 

GRADE 


the  buildings  in  with  the  prevailing  type  of  land- 
scape, wherever  his  problem  may  occur.  He  will 
use  his  plant  material,  then,  in  many  ways:  for 
screening  objectionable  features,  such  as  service 
walks  and  drives  and  outbuildings  (Fig.  22)  ;  ty- 
ing buildings  in  with  their  surroundings;  calling 
attention  to  points  of  interest  that  might  otherwise 


PLANTING  107 

have  been  overlooked,  such  as  a  distant  view;  for 
the  elaborating  and  harmonizing  of  architectural 
detail,  as  in  setting  off  a  monumental  building  to 
the  best  advantage ;  and  in  supplying  a  setting  for 
special  features,  as  for  instance,  a  background  for 
a  large  scheme  or  a  foreground  beyond  which  the 
general  scheme  is  to  be  seen. 

As  a  landscape  scheme  depends  for  its  chief  in- 
terest upon  the  first  impression  received  by  the 
beholder,  the  importance  of  the  point  of  view  can- 
not be  overemphasized;  therefore,  as  the  number 
of  points  of  view  in  a  problem  increases,  the  com- 
plexity of  the  plant  composition  increases  corre- 
spondingly. 

The  first  favorable  impression  made  by  a  land- 
scape scheme  as  seen  from  a  distance  must  be 
maintained  at  shorter  range,  and  the  massing  of 
plants  and  shrubs  must  be  accomplished  so  nicely 
as  to  stimulate  interest  for  a  nearer  view  and  a 
closer  analysis. 

If  an  estate  is  beautiful,  it  need  not  present  a 
blank  wall  or  screen  of  plant  material  to  the  gen- 
eral public  in  order  to  be  sufficiently  secluded  for 
privacy  (Fig.  23)  ;  neither  is  it  necessary  that  its 
owners,  willingly  or  not,  must  live  in  the  public 
eye.     It  should  appear  attractive  from  without, 


108  LANDSCAPE  GAEDENING 

but  this  attractiveness  should  be  secondary  to  the 
more  important  interest  of  those  who  are  gazing 
out  from  within. 

"^  In  the  planting  of  large  parks  or  public  proper- 
ties the  consideration  of  varying  points  of  view 
is  found  to  greater  extent  perhaps  than  in  any 
other  problems  which  the  landscape-architect  may 
undertake.  These  are  often  of  small  extent,  oc- 
cur generally  at  the  intersection  or  radiation  of 
streets,  and  are  seen  from  a  number  of  different 
points  of  approach.  It  is  very  essential  that  the 
park  should  appear  in  an  equally  favorable  light 
from  any  one  of  these  approaches,  and  its  compo- 
sition must  therefore  be  much  more  carefully 
studied  than  an  oif -scape,  which  is  to  be  seen  from 
one  position  only. 

Planting  is  often  employed  in  architectural 
composition  to  carry  out  the  lines  of  a  design  and 
to  unify  the  general  impression.  It  gives  a 
greater  breadth  to  this  impression  and  emphasizes 
the  salient  features.  It  furnishes  an  easy  transi- 
tion from  one  building  to  another,  and  is  a  great 
help  in  harmonizing  groups  of  buildings  of  differ- 
ent types. 

A  sense  of  fitness  is  so  evidently  lacking  in  num- 


PLANTING  111 

bers  of  architects  who  are  called  upon  to  design 
additions  to  educational  and  municipal  institu- 
tions and  groups  that  it  is  frequently  necessary  to 
employ  a  great  deal  of  planting  in  order  to  make 
the  results  bearable.  This  is  particularly  true 
where  different  architects  have  been  called  upon 
to  design  buildings  of  the  same  group.  In  such 
cases  there  often  appears  an  uncommendable  de- 
sire to  emphasize  the  particular  building  under 
consideration  by  making  it  of  much  more  attrac- 
tive appearance  than  the  other  members  of  the 
group,  rather  than  a  wish  to  unite  diverse  elements 
more  closely  and  add  to  the  collective  beauty  of  the 
scheme. 

Planting  may  also  create  new  interests.  In 
many  cases  where  architectural  elements  are 
markedly  dominant  it  is  impossible  to  introduce 
sufficient  accent  architecturally  without  either  the 
introduction  of  a  different  style  or  an  unwarranted 
distraction  of  attention.  Many  times  the  needed 
interest  may  be  supplied  by  planting  without 
marring  the  architectural  effect.  In  such  cases 
the  lines  of  the  large  planting  masses  are  arranged 
to  harmonize  with  the  architectural  lines,  and  ac- 
cent is  obtained  by  the  mass  characteristics  of  the 


112  LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 

plants.  If  the  problem  were  of  horticultiiral  em- 
phasis, the  accent  would  probably  be  achieved  by 
varying  shapes,  sizes,  or  colors  (Fig.  24). 

Planting  is  divided  into  two  classes,  according 
to  its  use,  whether  for  beauty  alone  or  for  more 
practical  purposes.  These  classes  are  called  the 
esthetic  and  the  economic. 

In  the  economic  class,  plant  material  is  em- 
ployed for  strictly  utilitarian  purposes,  beauty 
being  a  secondary  consideration.  It  subdivides 
large  schemes,  taking  the  place  of  more  artificial 
barriers,  and  screens  objectionable  features,  so 
that  utilitarian  buildings,  service  courts,  and  other 
features  which  are  not  essentially  attractive  may 
be  present  where  they  are  most  needed  without 
marring  the  general  beauty  of  the  scenery.  Eco- 
nomic planting  is  accordingly  unobtrusive,  and 
cannot  afford  to  attract  direct  attention  to  itself, 
as  in  so  doing  it  would  disclose  the  presence  of  the 
object  which  was  to  have  been  screened. 

Where  plants  are  used  in  an  esthetic  way  they 
fall  into  three  classes  of  treatment :  first,  they  may 
be  employed  to  aid  in  an  architectural  scheme,  be- 
ing interesting  chiefly  on  account  of  their  form,  as 
in  the  carrying  out  or  emphasizing  of  architectural 
lines ;  secondly,  for  the  interest  of  the  plant  itself. 


PLANTING  115 

as  is  generally  the  case  with  exotic  material; 
thirdly,  to  enframe  a  view  and  direct  the  gaze  to- 
ward distant  prospects  or  pleasant  features, 
thereby  giving  emphasis  and  accent  to  an  other- 
wise monotonous  scheme. 

On  account  of  the  widely  different  usage,  the 
characters  of  economic  and  esthetic  planting  must 
be  quite  dissimilar.  Economic  planting,  as  has 
been  stated,  should  be  so  very  unobtrusive  as  even 
to  escape  notice,  if  possible.  Consequently  plants 
used  in  such  a  scheme  will  be  indigenous  to  the  lo- 
cality, very  quiet  in  color,  and  not  at  all  striking 
in  outline.  The  most  successful  economic  plant- 
ing is  that  which  fulfils  its  function  and  at  the 
same  time  attracts  the  least  attention. 

Esthetic  planting, "  on  the  other  hand,  allows 
greater  latitude,  and  really  demands  the  use  of 
much  more  interesting  material,  as  the  attention 
is  supposed  to  rest  largely  upon  the  plant  material 
and  its  arrangement  as  an  end  in  itself.  As  it  has 
a  wider  variety  of  purpose,  this  will  give  a  corre- 
spondingly greater  range  of  selection,  and  will  in- 
clude the  exotic  and  subtropic  plants. 

For  esthetic  considerations  the  planting  is  to 
tell  first  as  dark  masses  against  lighter  areas,  and 
this  may  be  termed  ^'contrast  of  value."    This 


116     LANDSCAPE  GARDENINGS 

lighter  or  darker  background  may  be  a  set  of  build- 
ings, any  architectural  work,  such  as  walls,  gates, 
or  terraces,  or  a  wide  sweep  of  lawn  and  meadows 
in  less  highly  formalized  work.  The  sizes  and  lo- 
cations of  these  masses  are  determined  by  the 
problem  in  hand,  and  a  successful  solution  will  de- 
pend simply  upon  a  nice  discernment  of  their  es- 
thetic and  economic  significance. 

In  a  large  number  of  cases  planting  is  valuable 
chiefly  on  account  of  its  silhouette  in  elevation. 
This  is  generally  the  case  in  the  informal  style. 
In  the  formal  gardens,  where  parts  are  filled  with 
brilliant  bedding  plants,  and  where  the  whole 
scheme  is  seen  at  a  glance,  the  plan  will  be  of  major 
importance;  the  accents  alone  will  appear  to  any 
extent  in  profile,  and  they  are  often  architectural. 
The  plan  will  also  be  of  utmost  importance  if  the 
planting  is  to  be  looked  down  upon  from  a  height, 
as  often  happened  in  the  old  Italian  gardens  of  the 
Renaissance,  which  were  almost  invariably  located 
on  hillsides.  It  can  be  said,  however,  that  almost 
all  of  these  problems  where  the  plan  has  greater 
significance  will  fall  within  the  formal  style  of 
planting. 

In  the  informal  style  the  elevation  is  of  greatest 
importance,  and  the  plan  is  considered  mainly  as 


Q- 


PLANTING  119 

affecting  the  elevation.  Of  course  the  plan  and 
the  elevation  are  interdependent,  and  it  will  be 
impossible  to  develop  one  satisfactorily  without 
the  other.  Greater  attention  may  be  paid  to  either 
as  occasion  demands. 

Planting  problems,  as  regards  surroundings, 
fall  into  three  large  groups,  which  in  turn  are  sub- 
divided. They  are  city,  suburban,  and  country 
problems.  At  one  extreme  is  complete  architec- 
tural domination,  and  at  the  other  the  emphasis  of 
natural  surroundings.* 

In  the  transition  from  one  type  to  the  other  one 
influence  is  constantly  diminishing  as  the  other 
grows.  In  some  suburban  problems  the  extremes 
appear  to  be  rather  evenly  balanced.  Under  the 
city  type  will  come  the  typical  city  home,  almost 
exclusively  architectural;  then  the  city  park, 
which  may  be  a  sort  of  playground  for  the  chil- 
dren, or  a  square,  either  for  traffic  purposes,  or 
for  the  display  of  a  monument  or  a  feature  to  em- 
phasize an  axis.  This  last  use  is  probably  seen  to 
a  greater  extent  in  Washington,  D.  C,  than  in  any 
other  city  in  America.  Boulevards  and  parkways 
are  perhaps  the  most  important  field  of  the  land- 
scape-designer in  city  planting. 

Under  suburban  planting  problems  will  come 

*  See  Charles  Elliott,  "Landscape  Architect,"  pp.  266-271. 


120  LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 

two  classes  of  homes:  the  large  suburban  estate, 
where  expense  of  layout  and  upkeep  is  of  no  mo- 
ment; and  the  small  home,  such  as  brings  joy  to 
the  heart  of  the  commuter.  There  will  also  be  the 
large  naturalistic  and  countrylike  park,  the  prop- 
erty of  the  great  city.  This  park  will  have  vary- 
ing planting  schemes,  with  much  natural  planting ; 
golf-links,  formal  gardens,  rocky  hills,  meadows, 
curving  roads,  and  the  utilization  of  water  as  a 
decorative  feature,  with  its  many  possibilities  in 
the  way  of  bridges,  fountains,  and  cascades. 
Parkways  of  a  rather  informal  nature  will  be  con- 
sidered here,  and  also  the  planting  of  residential 
streets  as  units. 

The  country  class  of  design  has  fewer  ramifica- 
tions, dealing  with  only  two  classes  of  buildings; 
the  large  estate  for  pleasure  purposes;  and  the 
farm,  which  is  mainly  utilitarian.  In  a  country 
estate  the  trees  and  shrubs  must  harmonize  with 
the  surrounding  landscape,  and  this  controls  in  a 
large  measure  the  selection  of  the  plants  used. 
Plants  without  pronounced  single  characteristics 
are  used  in  large  masses,  while  the  more  specimen- 
like shrubs  are  reserved  for  the  smaller  areas. 
Where  trees  appear  in  formal  gardens  they  are 
considered  as  architectural  features.     This  refers. 


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PLANTING  123 

of  course,  to  the  walled-in  gardens,  wMch  are  ex- 
ceptions to  mass  planting.  But  in  tlie  gardens  of 
Italy,  where  the  total  area  is  often  as  large  as  a 
country  estate,  trees  are  frequently  used  as  if  they 
were  shrubs,  on  account  of  the  enormous  scale  of 
the  garden,  regardless  of  the  surrounding  land- 
scape. 

Plants  are  grouped  as  annuals,  those  that  die 
every  year;  biennials,  those  that  generally  flower 
the  second  year  and  then  die  out;  and  peren- 
nials, lasting  many  years;  greenhouse  plants, 
which  must  be  grown  under  glass ;  bedding  plants, 
which  are  started  in  the  greenhouse;  trees  and 
shrubs  which  are  classified  as  hardy  woody  plants. 

Planting  material  should  always  be  chosen  with 
the  idea  in  mind  of  fitness  for  the  function  which 
it  is  to  perform,  and  the  location  in  which  it  is  to 
appear.  This  has  much  to  do  with  soil  and  cli- 
mate, which  determine  the  scope  of  available  ma- 
terial. The  satisfactory  relation  of  plant  design 
to  its  location  may  be  loosely  termed  ''style  in 
planting."  The  material  should  be  selected  care- 
fully, so  that  it  will  seem  to  harmonize  with  its  set- 
ting, whether  this  is  architectural  or  naturalistic. 

For  instance,  in  a  colonial  garden  such  as  occurs 
at  Mount  Vernon,  or  in  the  modern  estates  built 


124  LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 

on  colonial  lines,  one  would  expect  to  find  box 
hedges,  the  rose  of  Sharon,  or  hibiscus,  rose  arches, 
perennial  phlox,  peonies,  and  hollyhocks  (Fig.  25). 
For  decades,  all  these  plants  have  been  so  closely 
associated  with  colonial  gardens  that  their  very 
presence  suggests  the  proximity  of  colonial  archi- 
tecture, and  they  serve  admirably  to  carry  out  the 
spirit  of  the  scheme. 

In  a  French  garden  one  always  finds  bedding 
plants  of  gaudy  colors,  standard  roses,  bays,  and 
clipped  trees. 

A  Florentine  garden  does  not  seem  complete 
without  the  ever-present  cypress  tree,  box  hedges, 
laurels,  crape  myrtle,  magnolia,  and  flowering 
plants  in  pots.  In  each  of  these  cases  the  plant 
material  employed  is  distinctly  different,  and  yet 
distinctly  characteristic  of  the  class  of  problem  in 
which  it  appears. 

Balance  and  unity  in  planting  are  virtually  in- 
separable. The  scheme  must  appear  to  hang  to- 
gether, and  not  be  a  number  of  loosely  related 
parts.  This  compactness  and  relation  of  the  di- 
visions of  the  planting  scheme  may  be  called  unity, 
and  is  achieved  through  balance. 

Balance  may  be  secured  through  color  and  by 
shape.     It  is  not  necessary  that  the  colors  and 


PLANTING  125 

shapes  found  on  one  side  of  a  planting  sclaeme 
should  appear  exactly  reversed  upon  the  other  or 
opposite  side,  but  only  that  the  colors  and  shapes 
of  certain  interest  in  a  scheme  should  be  balanced 
by  other  colors  and  shapes  of  equal  interest;  in 
fact,  symmetrical  balance  is  very  seldom  found  in 
informal  planting.  This  may  mean  the  employ- 
ment of  different  plant  material  to  produce  a  re- 
quired effect. 

Unity  is  achieved  by  keeping  all  the  plants  in 
scale — that  is,  more  or  less  of  the  same  size — and 
allowing  one  color  and  one  quality  to  predominate. 

Accent  is  really  an  unexpected  arrangement, 
something  growing  where  it  might  not  have  been 
expected,  or  in  such  a  way  as  to  increase  the  inter- 
est, giving  an  added  sense  of  pleasure.  Great  care 
must  be  exercised  not  to  introduce  it  so  frequently 
as  to  destroy  the  large  and  simple  relations  of  the 
planting  scheme.  Where  every  member  of  the 
scheme  is  clamoring  for  attention,  the  result  is  a 
pandemonium  in  which  no  accent  will  appear. 

Accent  is  sometimes  achieved  by  unusual  group- 
ing of  shrubs,  by  single  shrubs  placed  in  advan- 
tageous positions,  and  by  the  introduction  of  ex- 
otic varieties.  It  may  also  occur  in  the  use  of 
varying  shape,  color,  and  size,  though  the  varia- 


126     LANDSCAPE  GAEDENING 

tion  should  be  no  greater  than  is  necessary  to  pro- 
duce the  desired  accent.  If  too  great  contrasts 
appear,  the  accent  planting  will  not  seem  in  keep- 
ing with  its  surroundings,  and  there  will  be  loss  of 
unity. 

Accent  is  sometimes  used  to  hold  the  eye  within 
the  narrow  limits  of  a  small  planting  scheme,  and 
sometimes  to  carry  it  without  the  boundaries  and 
fix  attention  upon  distant  prospects.  An  example 
of  the  first  class,  where  unusual  groupings,  posi- 
tions, and  unique  materials  are  used,  is  the  Japa- 
nese garden  (Fig.  11).  Probably  no  two  elements 
in  the  garden  are  of  exactly  the  same  shape  or  size ; 
they  may  not  even  be  of  the  same  color.  Each  is 
to  a  certain  extent  an  accent  in  itself  and  possesses 
a  great  deal  of  interest;  but  all  these  dissimilar 
interests  are  very  carefully  and  subtly  balanced, 
and  all  occur  witliin  such  small  confines  that  the 
eye  is  held  by  the  interest  of  the  individual  plant 
shapes,  colors,  and  grouping,  and  by  the  charm  of 
the  accessories,  such  as  stone  lanterns,  bridges,  and 
tea-houses,  so  that,  indeed,  there  can  be  no  thought 
of  looking  outside  the  garden. 

Italian  gardens,  on  the  other  hand,  from  their 
very  position  on  rocky  hillsides,  demanded  that  the 
distant  views  form  a  large  part  of  their  charm,  and 


Photograph  by  Ande 

Figure    26, 


VILLA    ALDOBRANDINI,    FRASCATI,    ITALY 
An  architectural  enframement  to  emphasize  an  exterior  axis 


130  LANDSCAPE  GARDENHsTG 

in  consequence  accent  plants  and  architectural  ac- 
cessories (Figs.  26,  54)  as  well  are  constantly 
placed  in  such  a  manner  as  to  direct  the  gaze  of 
the  visitor  to  the  off-scape  in  various  directions. 
Wherever  a  particularly  beautiful  view  occurs  it 
is  almost  certain  to  be  set  off  or  enframed  by  some 
planting  features  (Fig.  27). 

Under  the  two  large  heads  of  the  formal  and  the 
informal  styles  will  be  found  different  types  which 
must  be  considered. 

Informal  planting  consists  of  irregular  forms 
irregularly  placed.  Free-growing  shrubs  are  used 
at  unequal  distances,  and  the  spacing  is  deter- 
mined by  the  spread  of  the  shrub  and  its  age. 

Often,  when  planting  for  inmaediate  effect, 
shrubs  are  set  close  together,  with  the  intention  of 
thinning  them  when  they  have  attained  a  larger 
growth;  but  in  some  cases  they  are  spaced  widely 
so  as  to  allow  for  subsequent  growth  without  al- 
teration of  position.  The  shrubs  are  planted  so  as 
to  express  the  outline  of  the  bed  in  which  they  are 
placed  when  they  shall  have  attained  their  growth. 

Informal  planting  allows  a  much  wider  range 
of  shape,  scale,  and  color  in  the  same  planting 
scheme  than  does  the  formal.  Informal  planting 
may  be  seen  close  at  hand  or  at  a  distance.     If  it 


Figure    28.       "WOODLAND    ThANTING 
Natural  growth  on  the  Massachusetts  coast 


PLANTING  133 

is  always  to  be  seen  at  a  distance,  as  in  large  parks, 
far  from  the  driveways,  detail  is  of  no  conse- 
quence, and  any  subtle  plant  characteristic  will  be 
lost.  Therefore,  in  distant  planting,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  seek  for  bold  effect.  If  informal  planting 
is  used  in  a  foreground  planting  scheme,  as  a  bor- 
dering for  driveways,  the  individual  interest  of  the 
plants  may  be  emphasized,  and  a  great  deal  of  at- 
tention given  to  detail. 

Formal  planting  consists  always  of  regular 
forms  regularly  placed,  but  in  a  majority  of  cases, 
though  this  is  not  usually  understood,  the  regular- 
ity is  obtained  by  selection  rather  than  by  clipping. 
A  certain  amount  of  regularity  must  be  the  char- 
acteristic of  a  formal  scheme.  Straight  lines  and 
angles  are  emphasized  on  account  of  their  greater 
precision,  while  the  informal  type  lays  larger  em- 
phasis upon  curves  and  rounded  masses. 

In  the  formal  type  little  is  left  to  the  imagi- 
nation. Few  unexpected  arrangements  appear. 
The  whole  scheme  is  visible  from  one  point,  in- 
stead of  unfolding  gradually  to  the  view.  This 
emphasis  of  lines  and  angles  may  be  attained  by 
the  position  of  plants,  spacing  so  as  to  define  the 
outline  sharply  by  the  selection  of  plants  of  natu- 
rally regular  shape,  and  stiU  further  by  keeping 


134     LANDSCAPE  GAEDENING 

the  plants  restrained  by  clipping  or  tying. 
Formal  planting  is  always  used  in  connection  with 
architecture  where  the  architectural  effect  is  to 
predominate,  and  the  prevailing  character  of  the 
lines  appearing  in  the  architecture  must  be  re- 
peated in  the  plant  masses.  Accent  can  here  be 
obtained  merely  by  change  of  outline. 

Falling  more  or  less  under  the  head  of  informal 
planting  are  several  groups  known  to  the  land- 
scape profession  as  woodland  and  wild  planting, 
gardenesque,  naturalistic,  park-like,  and  seasonal 
planting. 

In  woodland  planting  (Fig.  28)  the  trees  occur 
close  together,  and  are  irregularly  disposed,  with 
the  native  varieties  predominating.  Under- 
growth may  be  used,  or  the  ground  may  be  kept 
clear.  The  trees  are  set  at  intervals,  wide  enough 
to  permit  the  plantation  to  be  seen  into  easily  and 
have  a  more  or  less  open  appearance.  Such  plant- 
ing is  useful  only  on  a  large  scale. 

In  wild  planting  (Fig.  29)  trees,  shrubs,  and 
vines  are  allowed  to  grow  at  will,  without  any 
training,  and  wherever  they  may  choose  to  stray. 
This  type  of  planting  is  seen  oftener  as  a  result  of 
accident  than  premeditation,  though  there  are  rare 
instances  where  it  is  quite  desirable.     Wild  plant- 


Figure    29.       A    PICTORIAL    COMPOSITION    IX    WILD    I'LANTING 


PLANTING  137 

ing  will  of  course  consist  entirely  of  native  mate- 
rial, and  will  vary  with  the  character  of  the  soil. 

In  gardenesqne  planting  (Fig.  30)  the  emphasis 
is  laid  upon  the  horticultural  element,  and  the 
plants  are  selected  for  their  individual  value.  This 
may  be  due  to  the  leaf,  color,  or  perfume  of  the 
flower,  as  well  as  to  the  general  shape  and  texture 
of  the  plant.  The  plants  may  be  grouped,  and 
count  as  a  mass  from  a  distance ;  but  upon  closer 
inspection  the  individual  plants  should  appear, 
otherwise  their  varying  attractions  will  be  lost. 
The  position  of  plants  in  gardenesque  planting  is 
due  to  their  character  rather  than  to  their  height, 
so  that  scale  would  not  necessarily  be  a  determining 
factor  in  placing  plants  according  to  gardenesque 
treatment.  Japanese  planting  as  well  as  topiary 
work  may  be  included  in  the  gardenesque  type. 
The  English  border,  where  shrubs  are  "faced 
down"  with  perennials,  is  a  type  of  gardenesque 
planting,  for  the  charm  depends  here  upon  the  in- 
dividual plant,  the  rather  delicate  beauty  of  the 
perennial  being  strongly  silhouetted  against  the 
darker  shrub  mass. 

Naturalistic  planting  is  generally  to  be  seen 
from  a  distance,  and  is  composed  of  trees  and  na- 
tive shrubs.     The  mass  is  unrestrained  in  growth 


138  LANDSCAPE  GAEDENINa 

and  color  contrast.  The  position  of  the  shrubs 
will  be  due  to  their  height,  and  they  will  be  ' '  faced 
down."  '^Facing  down"  is  the  planting  of  small 
varieties  close  to  the  edge  of  larger  ones  in  order  to 
make  them  appear  as  a  bank,  and  tie  them  down 
closely  to  the  ground.  As  a  rule,  naturalistic 
planting  is  intended  to  be  seen  from  a  distance,  and 
its  boundaries  are  not  often  precise,  but  are  al- 
lowed to  merge  gradually  one  into  the  other. 

Park-like  planting  (Fig.  31)  tells  first  for  mass 
and  secondly  for  individual  values.  Trees  are 
grouped  in  large  masses,  and  small  clumps  occur 
near  the  edge  of  these  masses,  often  with  single 
trees  of  unusual  size  and  beauty  at  some  distance 
from  the  mass  planting,  so  that  an  impression  is 
created  of  large  masses  gradually  becoming  subdi- 
vided in  such  a  way  as  to  emphasize  the  individu- 
ality of  single  plants.  This  planting  is  not  faced 
down.     It  occurs  frequently  in  England. 

In  seasonal  planting  any  type  may  prevail,  since 
the  selection  of  plants  is  determined  by  the  season 
at  which  they  reach  their  greatest  attractiveness, 
and  this  type  of  planting  is  such  as  will  be  used  in 
an  estate  which  is  open  at  only  one  season.  Con- 
sequently it  is  not  necessary  that  the  garden  or  the 
surroundings  should  appear  to  advantage  at  any 


PLANTINGS  141 

other  time  of  the  year,  and  this  permits  a  more 
highly  specialized  type  of  planting.  Seasonal  se- 
lection may  apply  in  greater  or  less  degree  to  any 
of  the  planting  types. 

It  is  essential  that  the  landscape-designer 
should  arrange  all  his  data  in  such  a  way  as  to  be 
able  to  find  the  plants  he  wants  for  any  special 
reason  in  the  shortest  possible  time.  He  may 
have  designed  a  garden  for  a  specific  purpose,  sea- 
son, and  color,  quite  without  reference  to  plant 
material,  and  now  it  is  necessary  for  him  to  find 
the  plants  which  will  produce  the  effect  he  desires. 
The  easiest  way  to  do  this  is  by  the  card-index,  but 
it  is  very  difficult  to  work  out  a  card-index  scheme 
that  will  contain  in  simple  and  accessible  form  all 
the  characteristics  of  plant  materials.  Plants  are 
grouped,  regardless  of  their  botanical  classifica- 
tion, according  to  certain  marked  features  which 
lend  special  emphasis  or  attraction.  Under  these 
headings  are  height,  form,  quality,  characteristics, 
season,  value,  texture,  color,  and  soil. 

Shrubs  are  divided  into  three  classes  according 
to  their  height:  a,  low;  1),  medium,  and  c,  high. 
Height  is  a  primary  consideration  in  all  planting 
schemes,  as  it  determines  the  scale  of  the  entire 
planting  problem. 


142 


LANDSCAPE  GAEDENING 


Figure  31.      PARK-LIKE   PLANTING   AT    WARWICK,    ENGLAND 

/ 

The  scale  which  is  to  prevail  in  the  planting 
scheme  should  in  turn  be  fixed  by  the  requirements 
of  the  problem  in  hand.  If  a  screen  were  to  be 
planted  to  hide  a  garage  from  the  eyes  of  pass- 
ers-by, a  hedge  of  California  privet  would  be  of 
little  value,  as  it  would  not  perform  the  purpose 
for  which  it  was  placed  there.  It  would  be  neces- 
sary to  use  higher  shrubs  or  even  Lombardy  pop- 
lars, placed  close  together,  if  it  were  really  neces- 
sary to  conceal  the  building. 

The  scale  of  the  planting  may  be  determined  on 


144     LANDSCAPE  GAEDENING 

one  hand  by  the  economic  aspects  of  the  problem, 
and  on  the  other  by  the  esthetic.  The  height  is  de- 
cided upon  first  because  of  utilitarian  features,  and 
then  for  harmonization  with  existing  conditions; 
also  to  furnish  the  amount  of  emphasis  or  accent 
required.  High  shrubs  are  called  background; 
medium,  filler;  and  low  shrubs,  facing.  In  large 
scale  planting  the  trees  may  be  used  as  background 
shrubs.  In  small  scale  planting  herbaceous  plants 
are  often  used  as  facers. 

Plant  forms  may  be  roughly  divided  into  rec- 
tangular, curvilinear,  and  triangular  divisions 
(Fig.  32),  according  to  the  natural  shapes  of  the 
trees  and  shrubs.  While  the  groups  may  embrace 
numbers  of  widely  different  species,  some  of  the 
commonest  varieties  are  named  in  the  diagram  in 
order  to  make  it  easily  understood.  A  more  com- 
plex scheme  of  classification  may  seem  necessary 
to  some,  but  the  one  that  is  shown  has  proved  very 
satisfactory  for  general  use. 

The  rectangular  and  curvilinear  classes  have 
four  subdivisions;  the  triangular  has  two.  The 
extremes  in  each  class  are  used  as  accent,  for  the 
less  exaggerated  forms  are  of  greatest  usefulness, 
being  employed  to  do  the  heavy  work  in  most 
planting  plans.     These  are  the  filler  plants.     The 


Figure    33.       ItOSK    OF    SlIAUOX 
Hibiscus 


Figure    35.       SNC>WI!ERnY 
Symphoriearpus  racemosus 


Figure    34.       THE    GOLDEN"    ELDER CUT    LEAF    VAETETY 

Sambucus  canadensis  aurea 


PLANTING  147 

groups  may  also  be  divided  according  to  the  de- 
ciduous and  the  evergreen  members;  these  are 
further  subdivided  into  regular  and  irregular 
classes. 

Shrubs  are  often  selected  for  their  quality,  by 
which  is  meant  the  degree  of  refinement  of  their 
appearance.  According  to  their  quality  they  are 
divided  into  three  classes :  the  high  class,  or  named 
varieties ;  the  medium ;  and  the  coarse.  An  exam- 
ple of  a  high-class  shrub  would  be  the  rhododen- 
dron. Bush-honeysuckle  or  mock-orange  is  a 
medium  class,  and  the  Hydrangea  paniculata 
grandiflora  is  an  example  of  the  coarse  species. 

The  quality  of  a  shrub  will  often  suggest  its  use. 
A  marble  building,  such  as  a  museum,  a  memorial, 
or  a  library  demands  the  use  of  first-quality 
shrubs.  They  are  decidedly  fitting  for  use  amid 
monumental  surroundings.  The  second-quality 
shrubs  can  be  used  to  advantage  in  most  planting 
schemes,  while  the  coarser  varieties  will  not  ap- 
pear out  of  place  in  the  meanest  surroundings. 
Where  coarse  varieties  predominate,  shrubs  of 
medium  quality  may  be  used  for  accent ;  and  where 
medium-class  shrubs  predominate,  the  high-class 
shrubs  may  be  used  as  accent. 

For  any  planting  scheme  which  has  high-class 


148  LANDSCAPE  GAEDENING 

varieties  it  is  not  best  to  use  other  varieties  of 
shrubs.  The  designer  will  ordinarily  use  shrubs 
of  the  same  class,  depending  for  accent  upon  dif- 
ference in  shape  and  color. 

Characteristics  are  the  distinguishing  features 
of  a  plant,  that  part  of  its  form  or  development 
which  recommends  it  particularly  to  the  land- 
scape-designer. Its  major  interest  may  be  in  leaf, 
blossom,  or  twig.  The  leaf  may  demand  attention 
on  account  of  its  scale,  for  it  may  be  large,  as  in 
the  catalpa;  medium,  as  in  the  lilac;  or  small,  as 
in  the  spiraea.  Or  it  may  attract  because  of  its 
shape  or  its  regularity,  as  with  the  maples  and  the 
gingko  or  the  rose  of  Sharon ;  or  on  account  of  ir- 
regular development,  as  in  the  mulberry-tree. 
Then,  too,  the  distinguishing  characteristic  may  be 
its  value,  or  the  amount  of  light  or  dark  in  the 
green. 

Value  is  divided  into  three  parts:  as  light,  me- 
dium, and  dark,  and  these  values  appear  in  both 
deciduous  and  evergreen  plants.  The  leaves  may 
appear  in  clusters,  rows,  or  whorls,  and  demand 
attention  on  account  of  their  arrangement;  or  the 
entire  outline  of  the  leaf  masses  and  their  posi- 
tions on  the  tree  may  seem  to  be  of  greatest  im- 
portance.    The  direction  of  the  leaf,  which  will 


PLANTING  149 

be  horizontal,  vertical,  or  oblique,  will  also  affect 
the  problem. 

Leaves  may  be  grouped  in  masses,  as  in  tbe 
horse-chestnut,  or  may  be  scattered,  as  in  the 
American  elm.  This  will  affect  the  texture  of  the 
entire  tree  or  shrub;  but  the  texture  of  the  leaf 
itself  is  likewise  of  importance,  as  it  affects  the 
appearance  of  the  entire  leaf  mass  both  near  at 
hand  and  at  a  distance.  It  may  be  thick  or  thin^ 
rough  or  smooth.  Leaf  texture  may  easily  be  un- 
derstood by  comparing  the  leaf  of  the  California 
rubber-tree,  thick,  smooth,  and  regular,  with  the 
small,  thin,  and  serrated  leaves  of  the  white  birch. 
The  leaves  may  be  many  or  few  in  number,  and 
this  too  will  affect  the  appearance. 

The  first  characteristic  of  the  blossom  is  size, 
which  means  its  general  appearance  as  a  single 
flower  or  a  cluster,  and  may  be  large,  as  in  the  mag- 
nolia ;  medium,  as  in  the  PMladelphus ;  or  small  as 
in  the  spiraea.  Blossom  color  will  be  discussed 
under  the  head  of  color,  and  it  is  of  the  utmost  im- 
portance. 

In  arrangement,  the  blossoms  may  be  indi- 
vidual, as  in  the  rose  of  Sharon  (Fig.  33),  or 
massed,  as  in  the  elder  (Fig.  34),  and  this  will  af- 
fect the  problem  to  a  considerable  extent.     For 


150  LANDSCAPE  GARDENINa 

use  in  gardens  or  near  houses  the  odor  must  be 
taken  into  consideration,  whether  it  be  agreeable 
or  unpleasant.  Though  the  ailantus-tree  is  very 
decorative,  care  should  be  taken  not  to  select  the 
staminate  form  for  use  near  the  house,  on  account 
of  the  very  disagreeable  odor  of  the  male  buds. 

The  most  interesting  feature  of  a  tree  may  lie  in 
its  twigs,  because  of  their  color  or  direction.  This 
is  vertical  in  the  poplars,  angular  in  the  elm,  hori- 
zontal in  the  Cratmgus  or  the  tupelo,  and  drooping 
in  the  weeping-willow  and  other  trees  of  the  type. 
Twigs  may  be  slender,  as  in  the  acacia,  or  coarse, 
as  in  the  Kentucky  coffee-tree.  The  shape  of  the 
twig  may  attract.  In  the  maple  it  is  round,  in  the 
blue  ash  (Fraxinus  qnadrangulata)  square,  and  in 
the  Euonymus  alatus  triangular.  The  length  of 
the  twigs  between  branching  is  often  marked,  as  in 
the  ailantus  or  the  elm. 

Fruit  characteristics  have  two  phases,  the  eco- 
nomic and  the  esthetic.  Each  is  affected  by  sea- 
son, size,  and  color.  The  apple,  cherry,  pear,  and 
plum  are  examples  of  economic  fruit.  The  burn- 
ing bush  and  the  snowberry  (Fig.  35)  illustrate 
the  decorative  type.  We  may  also  have  a  combi- 
nation of  the  practical  and  the  esthetic,  as  in  the 
common  barberry  and  high-bush  cranberry.     The 


PLANTING  151 

fruit  is  very  decorative,  and  may  also  be  used  for 
the  making  of  jellies  and  jam. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  the  characteristic  of  a  shrub 
is  really  one  of  the  most  important  determining 
factors  in  its  choice  or  rejection  by  the  landscape- 
designer.  The  season  in  which  the  plant  charac- 
teristic develops  is  always  of  importance,  for  by 
a  critical  selection  a  garden  may  be  given  year- 
round  attractiveness  by  employing  plants  the 
characteristics  of  which  develop  at  different  sea- 
sons. The  choice  of  plant  materials  will  then  give 
a  constant  interest,  but  an  ever-changing  one.  It 
is  therefore  most  essential,  in  choosing  a  planting 
scheme,  to  bear  in  mind  whether  the  garden  is  to 
be  used  at  one  time  in  the  year  only,  and  to  plant 
accordingly. 

A  very  important  consideration  in  the  selection 
of  plants  is  their  value,  which  means  lightness  or 
darkness  in  the  general  impression,  and  is  de- 
pendent upon  the  foliage.  The  full  discussion  of 
value  may  be  found  in  the  chapter  on  color. 

For  landscape  purposes  all  three  values,  light, 
medium,  and  dark,  may  be  used  together  with  ad- 
vantage, though  it  is  not  advisable  to  use  extremes 
together.  The  light  and  the  medium,  or  the  dark 
and  the  medium,  may  be  employed  satisfactorily 


152  LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 

side  by  side,  but  the  light  and  the  dark,  mthout 
intermediary,  will  produce  too  strong  a  contrast. 
In  every  planting  scheme  one  value  should  be  al- 
lowed to  predominate. 

The  texture  of  a  plant  depends  first  upon  the 
size  of  the  leaves,  then  upon  their  number  and  ar- 
rangement upon  the  tree.  The  size  of  the  leaves 
comes  under  three  heads,  fine,  medium,  and  coarse. 
The  spirgea  and  the  Japanese  barberry  are  exam- 
ples of  the  first  variety,  the  PMladelphus  and  the 
lilac  of  the  second,  the  Magnolia  tripetela  and  the 
castor-bean  of  the  third. 

A  plant  is  chosen  for  color  on  account  of  the  hue 
it  retains  longest.  This  is  known  as  its  color  char- 
acteristic. Plant  colors  usually  change  during  the 
season.  Consequently,  the  hue  which  is  most  gen- 
erally present  is  known  as  the  plant's  distinguish- 
ing color.  In  the  Siberian  dogwood  this  would  be 
red,  because  the  bark  retains  its  brilliant  red 
throughout  the  year  despite  the  greener  summer 
foliage.  An  exception  to  color  change  is  the  Ker- 
ria  Japonica,  which  is  bright  green  in  leaf  and 
twig,  and  consequently  retains  the  same  hue 
throughout  the  year. 

The  soil  in  which  a  plant  will  attain  its  best  de- 
velopment is  often  a  determining  characteristic. 


PLANTING  153 

It  is  very  essential  that  all  plants  be  grouped  ac- 
cording to  their  soil  requirements,  for  a  delicate 
plant,  no  matter  how  necessary  its  color  or  form 
may  seem  to  be  for  a  certain  problem,  cannot  be 
used  if  the  soil  is  poor,  and  another  selection  from 
hardier  material  must  be  made. 

As  has  been  intimated,  the  architectural  or 
horticultural  emphasis  must  constantly  be  kept  in 
mind  in  designing  the  development  of  any  plant- 
ing scheme.  In  the  architectural  style  the  inter- 
est depends  upon  mass  (Fig.  36)  in  form,  value, 
and  color;  while  in  the  horticultural  type  the  in- 
terest lies  with  the  individual  plant  and  its  form, 
value,  and  color.  The  Faulkner  Farm  garden 
here  shown  is  interesting  for  its  forms  and  masses 
rather  than  for  any  flower  color.  For  this  reason 
it  shows  up  well  in  black  and  white. 

In  undertaking  a  planting  problem,  the  desired 
effect  must  first  be  carefully  determined,  and  then 
the  material  selected  that  will  produce  the  effect 
required.  The  landscape-designer  wishes  certain 
forms,  sizes,  and  colors,  and  considers  these  essen- 
tial to  the  best  development  of  his  problem.  He 
may  be  able  to  achieve  these  results  in  many  differ- 
ent ways  by  the  use  of  a  variety  of  plant  materials, 
and  consequently  will  have  a  considerable  range  of 


154  LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 

selection.  The  success  of  the  result  will  depend 
upon  the  care  exercised  in  the  choice  of  the  mate- 
rial, after  taking  into  consideration  the  economic 
and  esthetic  requirements  of  the  design. 

The  plan  should  always  be  read  from  the  eleva- 
tion. One  often  sees  in  parks  and  semi-public 
grounds  that  have  not  been  skilfully  laid  out  enor- 
mous beds  of  shrubs  placed  in  such  positions  that 
only  a  very  few  are  visible  from  any  point  of  view, 
and  consequently  three-fourths  of  the  material 
employed  has  been  wasted,  and  is  never  seen  at  all. 
A  wide  bed  containing  shrubs  of  equal  height  may 
be  seen  to  advantage  from  an  elevation,  or,  if 
placed  on  a  hillside,  will  look  well  when  regarded 
from  a  plain,  because  it  is  possible  to  see  the  ex- 
tent and  shape  of  the  planting  mass  as  well  as  the 
shapes  of  the  plants  which  compose  it;  but  unless 
such  a  planting  scheme  is  placed  in  a  position 
where  it  can  easily  be  observed  from  an  elevation, 
it  is  clumsy  and  useless. 

In  all  planting  schemes,  whether  city,  suburban, 
or  country,  and  no  matter  what  the  type  of  plant- 
ing employed,  it  is  well  to  have  a  predominance  of 
indigenous  plants,  or  at  least  plants  of  the  same 
general  genus,  possessing  similar  shapes,  belong- 
ing to  like  species,  and  having  the  same  general 


^     9= 


^     ?d 


PLANTING  157 

conditions  of  acclimatization.  This  predominat- 
ing impression  may  be  secured  through  the  filler 
shrubs. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  contours  of  na- 
tive trees  generally  harmonize  with  the  topogra- 
phy of  the  locality  in  which  they  are  found,  the 
long  axis  of  the  foliage  being  parallel  with  the  pre- 
vailing lines  of  the  landscape.  Thus  the  wide- 
spreading  sycamore  is  found  growing  naturally  on 
the  plains,  but  the  vertical,  jagged  cypress  is  thor- 
oughly characteristic  of  the  rocky  hillsides  of 
Italy.  If  either  of  these  trees  were  to  be  found  in 
the  habitat  of  the  other,  it  would  serve  as  a  most 
striking  accent.  The  same  tree  may  often  be  used 
in  different  ways  in  one  planting  scheme.  For  ex- 
ample, the  highly  individual  shape  of  the  Lom- 
bardy  poplar  compels  attention  when  the  tree  is 
used  singly  or  in  groups  of  two  or  three ;  but  it  also 
may  be  planted  so  close  together  for  use  as  a  screen 
that  the  individual  tree  forms  are  merged,  and  all 
indication  of  accent  is  lost.  The  use  of  poplar- 
trees  as  accents  is  very  noticeable  upon  the  plains 
of  France. 

The  harmonization  of  plant  forms  with  geologi- 
cal structure  is  even  carried  to  extremes  by  na- 
ture under  unusual  conditions.    In  the  volcanic 


158  LANDSCAPE  GAEDENING 

Japanese  landscape  shown  in  Figure  38  the  con- 
tortions of  the  rock  surfaces  are  repeated  in  the 
grotesque  forms  of  the  trees. 

If  one  were  to  believe  all  that  the  untrained  en- 
thusiasts say  about  natural  conditions  and  native 
planting,  some  very  strange  designs  would  result. 
One  is  told  that  plants  should  be  only  of  the  native 
and  local  varieties,  and  that  they  should  not  be 
corrected  or  trained,  for  ''is  not  Nature  the  great- 
est artist  of  all?"  Every  one  is  familiar  with 
planting  schemes  of  this  type,  for  they  may  be  seen 
in  any  village  where  places  have  been  allowed  to 
go  to  ruin.  They  certainly  look  well  in  pictures, 
but  are  impossible  to  live  with;  straggling  lilacs, 
unkempt  trees,  matted  grasses,  and  a  profusion  of 
weeds,  accenting  the  "native  element,"  are  seen  on 
all  sides,  and  are  truly  the  logical  outcome  of  just 
what  the  "back-to-nature"  men  are  clamoring  for. 

The  entire  question  of  selection  of  plant  mate- 
rial is  one  of  suiting  the  means  to  the  end.  With- 
out judicious  selection,  any  planting  scheme  will 
fail  miserably. 


V 

PROBLEMS 

Landscape  problems  fall  naturally  into  groups  or 
classes,  and  the  landscape-designer  is  bound  to 
come  into  contact  with  a  greater  or  less  number  of 
these  groups.  Within  the  groups  themselves 
there  is  sufficient  similarity  to  render  decidedly 
worth  while  a  thorough  knowledge  of  general, 
though  definite,  methods  of  approach;  for  famil- 
iarity with  a  type  problem,  and  success  in  its  solu- 
tion, will  be  of  great  assistance  in  attacking  other 
problems  of  the  same  class.  Several  problems 
from  different  landscape  groups  are  accordingly 
presented  here,  with  the  idea  that  their  solutions 
may  be  helpful  in  the  solving  of  problems  of  a  sim- 
ilar nature. 

COOPERATIVE  LANDSCAPE-GARDENING 

One  of  the  great  needs  in  America  to-day  is  the 
improvement  of  cities  by  a  better  arrangement  of 
available  space  for  the  bringing  in  of  more  coun- 
try-like conditions.     The  crying  need  seems  to  be 

159 


160     LANDSCAPE  GAEDENING 

either  a  better  use  of  the  unencumbered  space 
about  the  home  and  along  the  street  or  a  more  in- 
tensive landscape  development.  The  city-dweller 
should  strive  to  attain  more  the  healthfulness  and 
charm  of  the  country  than  the  average  home- 
seeker  can  possibly  secure  in  the  average  city  at 
the  present  date,  and  he  has  a  right  to  much  more 
healthful  and  congenial  surroundings  (Fig.  38). 

One  of  the  solutions  of  the  problem  of  civic  bet- 
terment has  been  the  building  of  garden  cities. 
These  cities  are  generally  laid  out  and  owned  by  a 
corporation,  and  all  its  inhabitants  accept  the 
houses  and  grounds  just  as  they  have  been  de- 
signed by  the  corporation  architects.  The  result 
is  of  course  a  much  more  harmonious  scheme  than 
could  have  been  attained  in  any  other  way.  There 
are  many  successful  communities  of  this  sort  in 
England.  The  scheme  has  made  better  headway 
in  Europe  than  in  America,  however,  for  the  ob- 
jection of  the  average  American  to  the  garden  city 
is  that  it  is  too  paternalistic  and  proprietary. 
What  the  American  people  demand  in  any  cooper- 
ative scheme  for  the  improving  of  the  surround- 
ings of  their  homes  is,  first,  that  their  own  individ- 
ual ideas  regarding  the  main  features  of  the 
proposed  scheme  be  given  careful  consideration. 


PEOBLEMS  161 

Individual  control  of  all  land  from  the  curb-line 
to  the  back  of  the  lot-line  has  become  with  us  at 
present  a  recognized  right. 

The  usual  solution  of  the  problem  of  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  landscape  with  regard  to  the 
average  city  street  is  for  the  municipality  to  con- 
trol the  paving  of  the  streets  so  far  as  to  regulate 
the  width  and  sometimes  the  type  of  materials 
used,  though  in  many  cases  even  this  is  left  to  the 
property-owners.  Often  the  question  of  tree- 
planting,  the  width  of  sidewalk,  and  the  prescrip- 
tion of  the  kind  of  material  to  be  used  in  the  con- 
struction has  been  controlled  by  the  city.  Other 
than  this,  the  problem  has  been  left  to  each  indi- 
vidual lot-owner;  but  the  result  of  such  a  type  of 
design  has  been  the  loss  of  virtually  all  the  indi- 
viduality and  interest  that  one  should  find  in  the 
development  of  the  landscape  along  our  streets. 
In  its  place  appear  mediocrity  and  monotony ;  long 
rows  of  houses  rigidly  adhering  to  a  set  building 
line  (Fig.  39),  lawns  entirely  bare  of  shrubs,  and 
the  street  trees,  if  there  are  any,  selected  without 
regard  to  their  fitness  for  the  needs  that  they  are 
supposed  to  satisfy. 

The  possibility  of  an  extension  of  intelligent 
municipal  control  so  as  to  include  all  land  from 


162  LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 

building-line  to  building-line  has  been  shown  fav- 
orably in  the  development  of  garden  cities,  and  it 
is  this  idea  that  will  solve  the  problem  of  a  more 
intensive  use  of  the  land  about  our  homes.  Such 
extension  will  not  mean  replanning,  but  planning, 
since,  as  a  rule,  no  plans  had  been  made  in  the  first 
place  but  the  surroundings  had  merely  grown  un- 
kempt, ugly,  monotonous,  and  entirely  lacking  in 
any  idea  of  unity  (Figs.  22,  40). 

By  the  carrying  out  of  a  simplified  treatment 
for  the  more  public  portions  of  the  home  grounds, 
the  individuality  that  we  should  expect  to  find  at 
the  present  time  will  not  be  lost,  but  will  actually 
be  acquired,  because  any  scheme,  to  be  successful, 
must  represent  the  united  thought  of  the  people 
interested  for  a  definitely  planned  result,  and  not 
the  possible  injustice  of  some  experiment  by  one 
person  for  philanthropic  or  altruistic  purposes :  it 
should  express  a  sort  of  collective  individuality. 

The  idea  of  community  cooperation  has  indeed 
been  used  successfully  as  a  basis  for  the  solution 
of  problems  for  street  improvement  in  several 
American  cities.  In  the  working  out  of  these 
problems  the  aim  has  been  to  secure  the  greatest 
amount  of  individuality  for  every  separate  home, 
and  at  the  same  time  provide  for  an  appearance  of 


PEOBLEMS  163 

continuity  in  the  street  as  a  whole.  Each  part  of 
the  .landscape  work  has  been  studied  not  only  with 
the  idea  that  each  separate  house  should  have  an 
individual  interest  and  furnish  a  setting  for  the 
buildings  adjacent  to  it,  but  also  that  there  should 
be  provided  a  continuous  and  uninterrupted 
scheme,  tying  the  whole  composition  together,  ac- 
centuating its  principal  features,  enhancing  the 
salient  characteristics  of  the  individual  buildings, 
and  adding  color  to  the  street  view,  at  the  same 
time  maintaining  the  scale  of  the  whole. 

In  the  organizing  of  this  work  a  general  meet- 
ing of  the  residents  of  the  street  in  question  is  held, 
the  plans  for  the  redesigning  and  beautification  of 
the  street  are  outlined  as  a  whole,  and  an  effort  is 
made  to  get  at  individual  preferences  in  regard  to 
the  replanning  of  each  place.  A  '^  street-improve- 
ment committee"  is  then  elected,  and  the  general 
working  out  of  the  scheme  is  placed  in  their  hands, 
with  the  understanding  that  each  individual  prop- 
erty owner  will  be  consulted  with  regard  to  the 
improvement  of  his  home  grounds  as  a  unit.  The 
final  plans  are  not  of  course  the  work  of  this  com- 
mittee, but  are  designed  by  an  expert  landscape- 
gardener  who  works  in  consultation  with  the  com- 
mittee. 


164  LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 

A  landscape  survey  is  next  taken  to  show  the 
general  conditions  of  the  trees  and  shrub  planta- 
tions and  the  arrangement  of  the  walks  and  drives, 
with  notes  as  to  the  advisability  of  changing  any 
of  these  features  for  the  increasing  of  their  effi- 
ciency. This  survey  is  made  by  notes  and 
sketches,  from  which  the  survey  plans  are  worked 
out  in  the  drafting-room.  These  plans  show  the 
location  and  size  of  the  houses,  width  of  the  street, 
the  positions  of  all  buildings,  the  walks,  arrange- 
ment of  walks,  and  position,  area,  and  variety  of 
shrubs  used  in  any  existing  plantations.  The 
plans  are  usually  drawn  at  a  scale  of  forty  feet  to 
the  inch,  each  sheet  showing  one  block  of  the  street, 
and  the  information  thus  presented  is  adequate  for 
completing  the  work. 

In  the  working  out  of  the  design  the  first  ques- 
tion to  be  studied  is  that  of  circulation.  The  main 
walks  and  their  relations  to  the  service  walk 
should  be  carefully  considered  not  only  in  relation 
to  each  individual  property,  but  as  regards  the 
street  as  a  whole.  The  question  of  the  street  trees 
comes  next  in  respect  to  their  general  location. 
Care  must  be  taken  to  locate  them  in  such  a  way 
as  to  satisfy  the  individual  needs  of  each  separate 
property,  to  provide  shelter  from  the  sun  as  well 


w       IS 


PEOBLEMS  167 

as  screening,  and  to  emphasize  circulation,  scale, 
and  open  spaces. 

In  the  actual  location  of  new  trees  a  blue  print 
of  the  street  survey  should  be  taken  out  in  the  field, 
and  the  actual  positions  of  the  proposed  trees  de- 
termined with  it.  In  this  w^ay  it  is  possible  to  lo- 
cate all  trees  carefully  and,  with  the  essential 
points  in  view,  determine  the  advisability  of  plant- 
ing. 

The  next  step  is  the  arrangement  and  planting 
of  the  shrub  growth.  The  schemes,  as  generally 
worked  out,  provide  for  park-like  planting  of  filler 
shrubs,  with  the  accent  shrubs  varying  to  suit  the 
taste  of  individual  owners.  The  larger  masses  of 
trees  and  shrubs  are  not  used  for  the  value  of  in- 
dividual specimens,  but  for  the  primary  purpose 
of  back-ground  shrubs  in  any  garden-like  treat- 
ment, where  herbaceous  plants  and  accent  or  spec- 
imen shrubs  require  setting  off  to  advantage.  This 
gives  to  each  place  an  individuality  all  its  own,  and 
at  the  same  time  lends  a  character  to  the  design 
that  will  within  a  few  years  give  the  street  a  uni- 
fied scheme  of  planting. 

Wherever  competent  landscape-designers  have 
been  employed,  cooperative  planting  has  given  sat- 
isfaction.    The  cost  is  minimized  by  the  purchase 


168  LANDSCAPE  GAEDENING 

of  wholesale  quantities  of  shrubs  and  the  division 
among  many  of  the  expense  of  design. 

AN"  AMERICAN   HOME 

The  typical  American  home  may  be  defined  as  a 
suburban  residence  costing  from  four  to  fifteen 
thousand  dollars,  and  having  a  lot  from  sixty  to 
two  hundred  feet  wide.  It  is  planted  more  or  less 
intelligently  as  a  rule,  but  it  can  be  safely  said  that 
a  judicious  use  of  plant  material  is  not  one  of  the 
distinguishing  characteristics  of  the  American 
suburban  home.  There  is  too  great  a  tendency  to 
use  plants  because  the  neighbors  use  them,  or  be- 
cause the  traveling  nurseryman  has  forced  them 
upon  one,  or,  a  better  reason,  though  not  always 
followed  by  a  better  result,  because  they  happen  to 
be  favorites. 

When  unsuccessful  planting  is  found  about 
suburban  homes  it  is  particularly  tragic,  since  it 
is  really  a  love  of  plants  and  a  vague  groping  after 
the  beautiful  that  have  inspired  many  a  pathetic 
planting  scheme.  Lack  of  success  in  suburban 
planting  can  usually  be  traced  directly  to  a  readi- 
ness to  plant  something  just  to  see  it  grow,  and  to 
a  failure  to  grasp  the  principles  which  underlie 
intelligent  planting — an  understanding  of  the  eco- 


PROBLEMS  171 

nomic  and  the  esthetic  sides,  each  with  its  peculiar 
function. 

The  simple  beauty  of  a  well-kept  lawn,  with  its 
smooth  texture,  is  too  little  appreciated  for  its  ef- 
fect in  setting  the  house  well  back  from  the  street, 
and  creating  the  idea  of  spaciousness  which  is 
always  desirable  (Fig.  38).  Too  often  the  middle 
of  a  fine  stretch  of  grass  is  grubbed  up  ruthlessly, 
and  the  inevitable  round  bed  of  red  geraniums  or 
King  Humbert  cannas  introduced.  Geraniums 
and  cannas  are  all  very  well  in  their  place,  but  that 
place  is  certainly  not  the  middle  of  a  lawn  at  the 
front  or  the  side  of  a  house.  It  is  this  sort  of  mis- 
take which  is  most  frequently  made.  Things  in- 
teresting or  beautiful  in  themselves  are  put  in  po- 
sitions that  minimize  not  only  their  own  beauty, 
but  that  of  their  surroundings. 

In  designing  the  landscaping  for  a  moderate- 
priced  American  estate,  the  tastes  of  the  owner 
must  be  understood  and  his  personal  likes  and  dis- 
likes weighed  and  scrutinized  carefully,  for  the 
house  and  grounds  are  his  property,  and  should 
not  only  appear  to  advantage,  but  ought  to  reflect 
his  taste  as  well.  It  must  be  admitted  that  it  is 
often  necessary  to  educate  the  client's  taste  consid- 
erably, but  the  results  will  justify  the  extra  effort. 


172     LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 

If  the  client  likes  flowers,  a  garden  may  be  in- 
cluded in  the  scheme,  and  planting  of  an  intimate 
and  diversified  character  may  be  employed,  as  his 
interest  will  insure  their  care  and  maintenance. 
If,  on  the  contrary,  he  is  not  particularly  inter- 
ested in  things  horticultural,  the  planting  should 
be  more  formal,  and  such  as  may  be  easily  kept 
up. 

The  first  large  considerations  of  the  design  are 
general  approach,  circulation,  and  views  obtain- 
able. The  best  rooms  should  of  course  be  located 
so  as  to  obtain  the  best  views.  The  service  por- 
tions of  the  house  and  grounds  should  be  separated 
as  definitely  as  possible  from  the  rest  of  the  estate. 

If  the  lawns  are  to  be  used  for  entertaining,  they 
should  be  kept  free  of  planting,  and  screened  about 
the  edges  to  give  some  degree  of  privacy;  but  if 
guests  are  not  to  use  the  lawns,  the  shrub  masses 
may  divide  them  to  a  great  extent. 

In  its  broadest  aspect,  the  lay-out  of  the  design 
problem  may  be  divided  into  three  parts :  first,  the 
private  portion  for  family  use;  second,  the  semi- 
public  part,  which  is  to  be  seen  by  the  guests,  and 
lastly  the  service  portion,  which  is  for  strictly 
utilitarian  purposes. 

The  private  part  of  the  grounds  should  contain 


PEOBLEMS  173 

tlie  family  flower-garden,  and  that  is  the  only  place 
where  flowers  should  appear  except  for  accent  pur- 
poses. The  garden  should  be  ample  in  extent,  and 
should  communicate  directly  with  the  living  por- 
tion of  the  house.  It  will  be  divided  from  other 
parts  of  the  grounds  by  economic  planting;  that 
is,  screens  of  shrub  masses. 

The  semipublic  divisions  of  the  estate  include 
the  entrance  walk  and  drives,  and  such  other  parts 
of  the  grounds  as  may  be  accessible  to  guests. 
Here  the  planting  is  simpler  and  more  formal, 
with  less  individual  interest.  It  consists  mainly 
of  shrubbery  masses  the  primary  purpose  of  which 
is  divisional  and  for  screening;  and  if  the  space  is 
sufficient,  there  may  be  a  few  trees.  The  space  is 
to  be  used  as  an  outdoor  room  and  for  purposes 
which  do  not  suggest  its  own  (horticultural)  inter- 
est. Consequently,  the  second  quality  of  shrubs 
will  usually  be  chosen. 

The  service  walk  should  go  by  the  most  direct 
way  to  the  service  entrance.  If  the  grocer-boy 
wears  a  path  across  the  grass,  the  owner  should 
thank  him  for  pointing  out  a  weakness  in  the  de- 
sign ;  for  if  the  path  had  been  located  properly,  he 
would  have  used  it.  The  object  of  a  service  walk 
or  drive  is  to  secure  the  promptest  and  most  effi- 


174     LANDSCAPE  GAEDENING 

cient  service.  Any  "landscaping"  of  service  cir- 
culation which  interferes  with  convenience  is 
meretricious.  If  lack  of  space  or  difficulties  of 
grade  necessitate  that  the  service  walk  be  in  part 
combined  with  the  main  entrance,  the  service  part 
should  be  treated  in  the  simplest  fashion,  and  even 
the  main  entrance  portion  less  elaborately,  other- 
wise the  contrast  will  be  too  marked. 

The  most  interesting  and  varied  planting  must 
be  reserved  for  the  private  portions  of  the 
grounds.  Here  the  trees  and  shrubs  are  to  bear 
close  scrutiny,  and  flower  value  is  very  desirable. 
If  any  exotic  planting  is  to  be  used,  this  is  the  place 
for  it.  There  may  well  be  an  emphasis  of  horti- 
cultural interest,  and  an  informality  that  would 
not  be  in  keeping  with  other  parts  of  the  scheme. 

The  semi-public  part  of  the  grounds  is  planted 
in  masses,  the  object  being  to  tie  the  house  in  with 
its  surroundings  and  make  the  transition  from 
plant  material  to  brick,  wood,  and  stone  as  little  of 
a  shock  as  possible  (Fig.  7).  Shrubs  should  be 
planted  about  the  base  of  a  house  to  break  the  line 
of  transition.  Vines  are  also  useful  for  this  pur- 
pose. It  is  not  necessary  to  plant  a  regular  group 
of  shrubs  all  about,  like  a  ^'feather  boa";  in  fact, 
that  sort  of  planting  does  not  improve  appear- 


Figure    39.       A    IIAIJ)    TREATMENT    OF    A    SHALL    cITV    STBEET 


^agiSMe. 


Figure    40.      UNKEMPT   SURROUNDINGS 


PROBLEMS  177 

ances.  It  will  be  better  if  the  shrubs  are  massed 
rather  irregularly,  with  emphasis  at  the  corners  of 
the  house. 

Two  plans  of  distinctly  different  treatments  of 
the  same  problem  are  here  shown  (Figs.  41,  43). 
They  may  serve  to  give  an  idea  of  the  many  and 
various  possibilities. 

In  the  rendered  plan  shown  in  Figure  41  the 
entrance  and  service  drives  are  combined,  and 
there  is  a  public  and  semi-public  portion,  the  latter 
containing  a  service  court,  a  garage,  a  laundry- 
yard,  and  a  vegetable  garden.  The  small  private 
garden,  laid  out  on  formal  lines,  with  its  turf  panel 
and  its  rose  garden,  is  sharply  separated  from  the 
semi-public  part  by  high  and  thick  planting. 

The  colors  in  the  planting  scheme  (Fig.  42) 
have  been  chosen  so  as  to  separate  the  yellow  and 
the  blue  greens,  putting  the  blue  green  at  the  far- 
ther end  to  exaggerate  the  color  impression  of  per- 
spective. Blue  greens  and  yellow  greens  never 
seem  to  go  well  together  without  intermediates, 
and  they  have  consequently  been  separated  here. 
A  decrease  in  leaf  size  will  also  heighten  the  illu- 
sion of  distance.  The  planting  about  the  private 
lawn  is  first  for  screening;  interest  of  outline  is 
a  secondary  consideration.     Lastly  there  is  some 


178  LANDSCAPE  GAEDENING 

consideration  paid  to  the  individual  interests  of 
the  plants,  but  this  is  considered  of  minor  impor- 
tance. 

Where  individual  interest  appears,  it  is  centered 
in  the  accent  plants.  In  the  plan  shown  these  are 
the  spiraea  Van  Houttei,  spiraea  Anthony  Waterer, 
and  Deutzias.  The  middle  of  the  rose  garden  is 
occupied  by  a  sun-dial,  the  only  architectural  ac- 
cent. Other  flowering  shrubs  used  are  lilacs,  Ker- 
ria  Japonica^  hydrangeas,  and  the  Viburnum  ster- 
ile, or  snowball. 

In  the  second  plan  (Fig.  43)  different  material 
is  used,  and  a  number  of  flowering-shrubs,  well 
distributed  in  seasonal  development,  appear. 

Places  of  a  smaller  scale  may  be  treated  with  an 
even  greater  degree  of  informality,  though  the  ob- 
servance of  the  principles  of  design — that  is,  the 
direct  and  beautiful  expression  of  function — must 
always  be  insisted  upon  (Fig.  13). 

SMALL  PLACES 

One  of  the  greatest  needs  for  planting  exists 
among  simple  and  cheap  surroundings,  and  the 
very  inexpensive  place  may  be  helped  by  planting 
even  more,  perhaps,  than  its  showy  and  elaborate 
brother.     On  account  of  the  item  of  cost  it  is  as- 


PROBLEMS  181 

sumed  that  all  landscape  work  about  inexpensive 
houses  will  consist  entirely  of  planting. 

Suppose  a  small  house  of  six  or  seven  rooms, 
with  a  lot  fifty  or  sixty  feet  wide  and  from  one 
hundred  to  two  hundred  feet  deep,  is  to  be  land- 
scaped. Often  in  the  smaller  cities  the  owners  of 
small  houses  keep  hens,  and  there  is  frequently  a 
tiny  stable  or  a  garage  at  the  back  of  the  lot.  So 
far  as  the  short-sighted  owner  can  see,  the  idea  is 
entirely  utilitarian,  for  he  has  allowed  the  immedi- 
ate saving  to  his  pocket-book  from  the  poultry  in- 
come to  usurp  the  place  of  the  far  more  important 
problem  of  keeping  his  possessions  in  such  a  sala- 
ble condition  that  he  can  get  the  greatest  cash 
value  for  them  at  any  time. 

Almost  everybody  recognizes  that  a  fresh  coat 
of  paint  makes  a  house  sell  for  much  more  than  it 
would  have  brought  without  the  new  paint,  plus 
the  cost  of  the  painting.  Too  few  realize  that 
planting  may  do  more  than  the  paint  to  increase 
the  value  of  a  building,  and  at  a  much  less  cost. 

If  there  is  any  planting  about  such  a  house,  it 
is  generally  a  straggly  flower-garden  because  the 
woman  of  the  house  loves  flowers.  She  thinks  of 
them,  however,  not  in  connection  with  the  place  it- 
self, but  only  for  their  own  intrinsic  beauty. 


PEOBLEMS  183 

Clothes-poles  straggle  irregularly  over  the  back 
yard,  pitching  this  way  and  that  at  dangerous  an- 
gles. The  ash-piles  and  the  chicken-coops  hold 
melancholy  sway  over  the  rear  of  the  premises 
(Fig.  22),  which  are  so  unkempt  as  to  make  it  seem 
quite  natural  for  women  to  appear  there  in  un- 
studied costumes  and  curl-papers. 

The  picture  has  not  been  painted  too  black.  In 
some  of  the  most  prosperous  of  our  small  cities 
and  towns  in  the  Middle  West  respected  members 
of  the  community  often  allow  their  houses  and 
grounds,  exteriorly  at  least,  to  present  a  most  dis- 
reputable appearance.  Things  that  litter  up  the 
inside  of  the  house  and  are  thrown  out  to  be  carted 
away  are  frequently  left  where  they  are  dropped, 
and  allowed  to  remain  there  for  months.  It  is  not 
that  way  inside  the  house.  There  all  is  order  and 
precision;  but,  as  a  rule,  the  average  American 
citizen  is  so  obsessed  with  his  own  individual  opin- 
ions and  problems  that  he  does  not  remember  that 
he  has  a  duty  to  his  neighbors,  and  that  that  duty 
may  consist  in  keeping  the  surroundings  of  his 
house  in  a  decent  condition. 

How  may  this  hypothetical,  and  too  often  actual, 
place  be  helped  without  too  great  an  outlay  of 
money,  and  in  such  a  way  that  its  owner  will  take 


184  LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 

a  greater  pride  in  it  and  live  in  it  more  comfort- 
ably? 

As  usual,  the  really  utilitarian  aspects  must  be 
considered  at  the  outset.  The  chickens  must  be 
restrained  and  put  in  sanitary  yards  and  houses 
which  will  not  only  look  better,  but  will  improve 
the  condition  of  the  poultry  and  keep  them  from 
straying  away  and  getting  lost.  These  houses 
should  be  at  the  extreme  rear  of  the  lot,  unless  it  is 
bounded  by  a  stream  or  lake,  or  a  view  of  some  sort. 
In  that  case  they  can  be  put  at  the  side  and  toward 
the  rear. 

The  clothes-line  need  not  stay  out  at  all  seasons ; 
indeed,  it  will  collect  soot  and  soil  the  clothes  if  al- 
lowed to  do  so.  The  posts  to  which  it  is  fastened 
should  be  strong  and  erect,  and  planted  firmly  in 
the  ground.  It  is  an  easy  matter  to  paint  them 
and  allow  vines  to  climb  over  them  so  that  they 
will  be  useful  and  ornamental  at  the  same  time. 
If  the  line  is  supported  strongly  at  the  outside 
boundaries  of  the  lot,  it  will  not  need  much  auxil- 
iary bracing,  and  consequently  as  soon  as  the 
clothes  are  dried  a  lawn  of  considerable  size  is 
available  for  the  rest  of  the  week.  This  affords 
space  for  children  to  play,  enables  certain  kinds  of 
work  to  be  performed  out  of  doors  pleasantly,  and 


Bho(/aryfios  karroUts 


'/nous  ffmcfco/ias 


PROBLEMS  185 

gives  the  ''out-door  room"  sadly  needed  at  the 
present  time. 

Thus  by  moving  the  chicken-yard  and  using  sen- 
sible clothes-posts,  the  appearance  of  the  grounds 
has  greatly  benefited.  It  will  not  be  necessary  to 
warn  against  dumping  garbage  and  ashes  in  such  a 
yard,  because  hardly  any  one  is  stupid  enough  to 
deface  a  large  area  of  greensward,  unless  it  is  with 
the  proverbial  red  geranium  bed.  That  bed  will 
not  intrude  in  this  instance,  because  the  space  must 
be  left  clear  as  a  laundry-yard.  Just  so  soon  as 
the  back  part  of  the  grounds  have  been  set  to 
rights,  the  result  will  be  felt  in  the  neighborhood, 
and  the  chances  are  that  others  will  follow  suit. 

As  has  before  been  mentioned,  the  front  part  of 
the  grounds  are  semi-public  in  nature,  and  that 
will  not  be  the  place  for  the  indulgence  of  personal 
whims  and  vagaries.  Often  it  is  only  the  love  of 
bright  colors  and  the  wish  that  their  surroundings 
appear  neat  that  lead  people  to  disfigure  their 
grounds.  Behind  the  house  one  can  be  as  inde- 
pendent as  possible  without  ruining  the  appear- 
ance of  a  street.  Of  course  it  always  happens  that 
the  house  that  is  most  noticeable  is,  in  the  owner's 
eyes,  the  most  admirable  residence  on  the  street; 
but  that  is  almost  without  exception  solely  on  ac- 


186  LANDSCAPE  GAEDENING 

count  of  tlie  point  of  view.  It  reminds  one  of  the 
little  Irish  lady  who  proudly  asserted  that  her  son 
was  the  only  man  who  was  "in  step"  in  his  regi- 
ment. It  is  certainly  the  consensus  of  opinion  that 
if  the  landscaping  of  a  house  is  to  be  satisfactory 
for  any  length  of  time,  it  cannot  be  striking  in  ap- 
pearance. 

Simplicity  will  mean  a  saving  of  money,  for  it 
will  appear  that  the  simplest  thing  to  do  is  to  have 
an  unornamented  front  lawn,  and  there  is  conse- 
sequently  no  necessity  for  purchasing  plants  for 
that  part  of  the  grounds.  Of  course  shrubbery 
masses  to  emphasize  corners  and  boundaries  are 
very  desirable  (Fig.  13),  but  they  cannot  be  con- 
sidered where  it  is  necessary  to  plant  for  the  least 
possible  outlay.  When  one  comes  to  the  house  it- 
self, planting  of  some  sort  must  be  done  to  break 
the  hard  line  where  the  brick  or  stone  walls  of  the 
basement  appear  above  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

There  is  often  a  porch  at  the  front  of  the  house, 
and  this  will  make  a  good  trellis  for  climbing- vines. 
A  row  of  bright-colored  plants  about  the  edge  will 
break  the  line  so  far  as  form  is  concerned,  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  brilliant  color  will  call  atten- 
tion to  the  objectionable  feature  which  it  was  in- 
tended to  soften.     Ten  cents'  worth  of  seed  will 


PROBLEMS  189 

supply  enough  morning  glories,  Japanese  hops  or 
wild  cucuraber  vines  to  cover  a  very  large  porch  in 
a  short  time.  Even  the  edible  "scarlet  runner" 
bean  can  be  used  for  this  purpose. 

At  the  back  there  must  be  some  planting  to 
screen  the  hen-yards,  and  it  is  quite  possible  to  use 
food  plants  for  this  purpose.  Currant-bushes 
make  a  very  good  screen,  or  the  handsome  common 
sunflower  will  grow  into  an  impenetrable  hedge  in 
a  short  time.  The  seeds  will  also  serve  as  food  for 
the  hens,  so  a  planting  of  sunflowers  will  combine 
esthetic  and  economic  values. 

Now  arises  the  question  of  flowers  and  vegeta- 
bles. Flowering  shrubs,  which  make  a  good 
screen,  and  a  background  for  perennials  as  well, 
can  be  planted  along  the  sides  of  the  lot,  or  if  these 
are  too  expensive,  vines,  hollyhocks,  or  sunflowers 
may  be  substituted.  The  vegetables  may  go  to- 
ward the  back,  as  clear  space  must  be  provided  for 
the  laundry-yard.  A  very  informal  use  of  flowers 
will  be  perfectly  satisfactory,  as  they  will  neces- 
sarily be  massed  on  account  of  restricted  space, 
and  the  other  planting  will  not  be  so  severe  as  to 
insist  upon  elaborate  design. 

The  success  of  such  a  planting  scheme  will  de- 
pend entirely  upon  its  usefulness. 


190     LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 

SCHOOL  GROUNDS 

In  this  so-called  "age  of  the  child"  a  great  deal 
of  nonsense  is  being  talked  on  all  sides  by  more  or 
less  well-informed  enthusiasts  about  the  duty  of 
the  public  to  the  rising  generation.  Amid  a  vast 
deal  of  sentimental  and  useless  agitation  no  small 
amount  of  good  has  really  been  accomplished,  not- 
ably in  providing  recreation  parks  and  play- 
grounds and  in  making  school  grounds  more  at- 
tractive and  useful. 

It  is  essential  that  children  should  have  plent}^ 
of  air  and  sunlight  and  room  for  running  about 
and  playing  active  games  (Fig.  44).  The  more 
attractive  school  grounds  can  be  made,  the  more 
the  children  will  use  them,  and  will  reflect  the 
pleasant  out-door  atmosphere  within  the  buildings 
themselves. 

As  in  all  planting  schemes,  school  grounds  have 
their  esthetic  and  utilitarian  features,  and  it  is  ad- 
vantageous if  the  decorative  planting  can  have  an 
educational  emphasis  as  well.  There  are  many 
common  and  beautiful  trees  and  shrubs  which 
every  one  should  know,  and  these  ought  to  be  used 
wherever  possible,  in  order  that  the  children  may 
become  familiar  with  them. 


PEOBLEMS  191 

Utilitarian  planting  will  take  the  place  of  the 
traditional  ugly  fence  to  divide  the  playgrounds 
into  areas  for  little  children,  for  the  boys,  and  for 
the  girls. 

The  best  chance  for  ornamental  planting  is  about 
the  entrance  to  the  grounds  and  close  about  the 
building.  Playgrounds  proper  should  not  be 
shaded,  as  it  is  best  for  the  children  to  play  in  the 
sunlight ;  but  trees  may  well  be  used  in  other  parts 
of  the  grounds  to  serve  as  a  background,  giA^e 
shade  for  rest  from  active  sports,  shelter  sand 
courts  where  the  little  children  play,  and  provide 
contrast  with  the  large  open  areas.  Seats  may  be 
placed  beneath  the  trees. 

In  planting  modern  school  grounds  the  idea  is 
not  to  have  them  useful  during  a  few  restricted 
hours  of  the  day  only,  while  the  building  is  open 
and  school  is  in  session,  but  rather  that  they  may, 
in  a  way,  take  the  place  of  the  old-time  village 
green  and  be  permanently  attractive  and  service- 
able. It  will  be  seen  that  this  point  of  view  is 
quite  directly  opposed  to  that  which  prevailed  only 
a  few  years  ago,  when  to  all  outward  appearances 
the  school  buildings  were  very  like  penal  institu- 
tions. "Shades  of  the  prison  house"  seemed  to  be 
their  rightful  atmosphere. 


192  LANDSCAPE  GAEDENING 

Grass  may  be  used  to  advantage  about  the  en- 
trance and  those  portions  of  the  grounds  which  are 
not  devoted  to  play,  but  it  is  useless  to  attempt  to 
keep  turf  in  good  condition  under  children's  flying 
feet.  Grass  borders  may  nevertheless  be  used  to 
good  advantage  about  the  boundary-edges  of  the 
play  areas  and  shrub  masses.  Here  they  consti- 
tute a  real  decorative  feature,  being  used  as  a  strip 
of  bright  green  color  rather  than  as  turf. 

It  will  be  impossible  to  get  much  variety  into  the 
economic  planting,  as  trees  and  shrubs  sufficiently 
thick  and  hardy  to  serve  the  purpose  are  few. 
The  only  chance  for  any  variety  will  probably  be 
in  the  massing  and  handling  of  shapes  in  a  large 
way.  Any  flowers  or  flowering-shrubs  should  be 
used  in  the  decorative  portions  of  the  planting, 
and  as  far  away  from  the  playgrounds  as  possible. 

In  connection  with  school  grounds  little  garden 
plots  are  often  laid  out  which  are  turned  over  to 
the  children  to  cultivate,  and  the  results  are  sur- 
prisingly satisfactory.  The  children  in  this  way 
obtain  a  first-hand  knowledge  of  plant  growth,  and 
often  acquire  information  which  is  useful  at  home. 
More  than  anything  else  it  teaches  them  to  take  a 
proper  pride  in  the  appearance  of  their  surround- 


PROBLEMS  193 

ings.  Wherever  space  permits,  school  gardens 
should  be  encouraged. 

Greater  attention  can  be  paid  to  the  decorative 
side  of  planting  in  institutions  of  higher  learning, 
which  presumably  maintain  more  orderly  condi- 
tions. Natural  features  are  taken  advantage  of  in 
many  cases  with  charming  I'esults.  Cornell  and 
Vassar  have  beautiful  campuses  because  they  have 
utilized  the  natural  topography  to  the  best  advan- 
tage. 

Planting  should  be  of  the  park-like  variety,  with 
some  tree  masses,  in  other  places  small  groups,  and 
single  specimens  of  more  highly  specialized  types. 
It  is  a  mistake  to  use  too  great  a  variety  in  plant- 
ing of  this  sort,  for  it  destroys  harmony ;  and  since 
American  institutions  of  higher  learning  are  no- 
toriously irregular,  at  least  in  so  far  as  architec- 
ture is  concerned,  it  is  essential  that  there  be  some 
unifying  element,  which  may  well  be  the  planting. 

A  general  informality  should  characterize  the 
planting  unless  the  plan  is  symmetrical  and  the 
axes  highly  developed,  in  which  case  the  formal 
type  is  more  suitable.  An  arrangement  of  build- 
ings like  that  at  the  Harvard  Medical  School  calls 
for  formal  planting  on  account  of  its  uniformity, 


194  LANDSCAPE  GAEDENINa 

while  the  Cornell  campus  would  be  ruined  by  a 
rigid  formality. 

Walks  and  drives  about  university  grounds  are 
often  laid  out  in  ludicrous  fashion.  With  short 
intervals  between  classes,  it  is  essential  that  stu- 
dents have  access  to  the  buildings  by  the  most  di- 
rect routes,  and  it  is  often  amusing  to  find  how 
studiously  these  routes  appear  to  have  been 
avoided  by  the  walks  in  the  majority  of  cases. 
Those  who  have  been  so  careless  as  to  lay  out  walks 
in  a  wandering  ^'artistic"  way,  through  a  total 
misapprehension  of  the  laws  of  beauty,  take  refuge 
in  plastering  '' Keep-off -the-grass"  signs  about 
the  campus.  Of  course  they  are  cheerfully  disre- 
garded by  the  students,  who  realize  that  in  this 
case  at  least  their  time  is  valuable,  and  conse- 
quently wear  new  paths  along  more  sensible  lines. 
Sometimes  the  authorities  are  astute  enough  to 
perceive  the  justice  of  the  implied  criticism,  and 
construct  paths  along  lines  really  necessary  for 
convenient  circulation.  The  result  is  always  more 
pleasing  than  the  tortuous  scheme  that  existed  be- 
fore. 

Another  point  to  be  observed  in  constructing 
walks  on  college  campuses  is  the  number  of  stu- 
dents who  are  to  use  them,  and  the  amount  of  traf- 


PROBLEMS  195 

fie  that  must  pass  when  going  in  opposite  direc- 
tions. This  will  determine  the  width  of  the  walks, 
and  if  the  walks  have  not  been  laid  out  at  the 
proper  width  the  designer  will  be  rewarded  by  hav- 
ing the  turf  worn  away  for  a  foot  or  two  on  each 
side  of  the  walk. 

The  drives,  if  there  are  any,  should  be  so  con- 
structed that  visitors  may  see  the  entire  institu- 
tion, from  the  outside  at  least,  without  leaving 
their  car  or  carriage.  For  this  reason  it  is  well 
to  make  the  drives  indirect,  as  they  are  for  esthetic 
rather  than  for  economic  interest.  If  they  were 
made  straight,  they  would  be  utilized  immediately 
as  short  cuts  for  heavy  teaming  and  noisy  motor- 
cycles. 

Flowers,  except  flowering-shrubs,  are  rather  out 
of  place  in  a  scheme  of  this  sort,  although  an  occa- 
sional English  border  might  add  an  unobjection- 
able accent.  Too  frequently  in  a  problem  of  this 
kind  masses  of  accent  material  are  introduced,  and 
circular  flower-beds  are  permitted  to  dissect  long 
stretches  of  beautiful  turf,  displaying  occasionally 
hideous  color  combinations.  These  are  entirely 
foreign  elements,  and  it  is  not  in  keeping  with  the 
spirit  of  an  educational  institution  to  exhibit  plant- 
ing  of   such   an   ostentatious   character.    Where 


196  LANDSCAPE  GAEDENINa 

there  is  a  chance  to  use  a  large  stretch  of  turf  it  is 
well  to  take  advantage  of  it. 

GOLF-COUKSE 

In  laying  out  a  golf-course  (Figs.  45,  46)  the 
final  appearance  of  the  design  will  depend  directly 
upon  the  clearness  with  which  the  purpose  has  been 
kept  in  view,  and  the  ingenuity  with  which  the 
topographical  features  have  been  utilized. 

The  purpose  of  a  golf-course  is  recreation,  and 
consequently  it  is  frequently  found  in  connection 
with  country  clubs.  There  is  certain  to  be  a  house 
for  lockers  and  shower-baths  for  the  members,  and 
in  a  club  which  is  at  all  pretentious  the  building 
is  more  or  less  elaborate,  with  recreation,  dancing, 
and  reading-rooms,  verandas,  and  other  comforts 
and  conveniences.  The  golf-course  itself  is 
strictly  utilitarian,  inasmuch  as  it  is  to  be  used  for 
a  definite  purpose,  although  this  purpose  is  the 
playing  of  a  game. 

The  course  necessarily  covers  a  large  amount  of 
ground,  and  is  generally  naturalistic  in  planting. 
Any  planting  that  interferes  with  the  game  is  out 
of  place,  and  therefore  all  elaborations  must  be 
kept  near  the  club-house.  The  degree  of  elabora- 
tion will  depend  upon  the  wealth  of  the  club  and 


PROBLEMS  199 

the  general  appointments  of  the  building.  But 
even  if  the  building  is  very  elaborate,  the  planting 
should  be  restrained  sufficiently  to  keep  it  in  har- 
mony with  the  naturalistic  planting  of  the  links. 

The  first  consideration  after  the  site  has  been 
determined  is  to  make  the  best  use  of  the  topogra- 
phy. Rather  might  one  say  that  topography  has  a 
great  deal  to  do  with  the  selection  of  a  site  and  the 
laying  out  of  more  or  less  difficult  courses. 

The  contours  should  be  generally  undulating, 
though  with  some  variety  and  a  considerable 
amount  of  rough  ground  and  natural  hazards,  like 
swamps,  ditches,  impenetrable  growth,  and  abrupt 
changes,  such  as  steep  banks  or  small  cliffs  and 
water.  There  should,  however,  be  a  larger  area  of 
smooth  and  even  ground  to  make  the  hazards  an 
intensive  feature  of  the  course,  lending  new  in- 
terest by  the  introduction  of  a  different  type  of 
play. 

In  laying  out  a  course,  the  general  direction  of 
the  holes  should  be  north  and  south,  and  the  gen- 
eral direction  of  play  between  holes  should  run 
counter-clockwise.  Within  these  limitations  the 
holes  should  be  laid  out  with  as  much  variety  as 
possible,  so  that  the  different  phases  of  the  game 
may  be  emphasized  in  playing  the  various  holes, 


200  LANDSCAPE  GAEDENINa 

and  in  this  way  the  topography  will  be  of  great  ad- 
vantage if  it  varies  considerably. 

The  first  hole  of  a  golf-course  is  always  a  long 
one,  and  is  generally  straight.  In  nine-hole 
courses  there  are  two  short  holes,  and  in  an  eight- 
een-hole  course  there  are  generally  four  short 
holes,  two  for  each  half.  In  nine-hole  courses  the 
short  holes  should  be  four  and  five ;  in  the  eighteen- 
hole  course  five  and  six  or  six  and  seven,  and  thir- 
teen and  fourteen  or  fourteen  and  fifteen. 

The  distance  between  the  holes  should  be  deter- 
rained  by  an  even  number  of  average  shots.  The 
good  player  should  be  able  to  make  a  hole  in  three, 
four,  or  five  shots  when  playing  his  average  game. 
The  distance  should  not  lie  between  three  and  four 
shots  or  between  four  and  five,  but  should  be  such 
as  will  cause  the  player  to  use  his  best  efforts  to 
play  the  hole  with  an  even  number  of  lengthy  shots. 

If  the  club  is  situated  in  the  country,  the  club- 
house should  be  nearest  to  the  means  of  communi- 
cation,— railroads,  trolley  lines,  or  highroads, — so 
that  it  may  be  directly  accessible  to  players  who 
have  come  some  distance  and  have  only  a  limited 
time  to  play.  For  this  same  reason,  as  many  play- 
ers do  not  have  sufficient  time  to  play  the  entire 
course,  holes  nine,  fifteen,  and  eighteen  are  gener- 


PROBLEMS  203 

ally  located  near  the  club-house,  so  that  the  play- 
ers may  stop  whenever  convenient  and  be  at  no 
great  distance  from  the  house. 

The  planting  of  the  course,  so  far  as  the  matter 
of  playing  it  is  concerned,  is  strictly  economic. 
The  best  use  of  existing  features  such  as  trees  and 
shrubs  should  be  made,  and  they  are  usually  pre- 
served to  supply  shade  or  act  as  natural  hazards. 
No  planting  of  any  sort  should  be  used  unless  it 
aids  the  game,  and  if  the  planting  is  not  chosen  as 
a  hazard,  it  must  be  kept  back  from  the  line  of 
play.  Trees  may  often  be  used  near  a  hole  to  sup- 
ply shade  in  which  the  players  may  rest. 

Esthetic  planting  is  confined  very  closely  to  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  the  club-house  or  is  used 
about  the  boundaries  of  the  course.  This  is  really 
the  only  function  esthetic  planting  may  have  in  a 
good  golf-course,  for  it  is  out  of  place  in  ground 
which  is  played  over. 

In  planting  a  golf-course  formal  or  gardenesque 
planting  may  be  used  by  the  club-house,  but  the 
rest  of  the  scheme  is  naturalistic  and  consists 
mostly  of  existing  features.  This  does  not  imply 
that  a  golf  course  should  look  barren  and  uninter- 
esting, however,  for  the  natural  features  may  be 
most  attractively  displayed. 


204  LANDSCAPE  GAEDENING 

A  COTJN'TRY  ESTATE 

Country  estates  are  of  two  sorts,  those  in  wMcli 
farming  is  the  primary  consideration,  and  those 
where  no  income  is  to  be  derived  from  the  farming, 
making  the  economic  feature  of  secondary  impor- 
tance. 

Country  estates  having  farming  for  primary  in- 
terest may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  those  in 
which  production  of  crops  is  the  single  purpose, 
and  those  in  which  the  production  of  crops  dis- 
played to  the  best  advantage  is  aimed  at.  This  is 
the  sort  of  estate  that  the  gentleman  farmer  would 
own  (Fig.  48). 

In  the  second  class  of  country  estates  crops  are 
used  to  support  the  estate  itself,  but  not  for  the 
purpose  of  deriving  any  additional  income.  In 
still  another  division  they  minister  to  only  one 
feature  of  the  estate,  which  class  is  to  be  used  for 
the  purpose  of  entertainment  only.  This  self-sup- 
porting feature  may  be  vegetables,  cut  flowers,  or 
fruit,  intended  solely  for  the  entertainment  of  the 
guests  of  the  owner  (Fig.  49). 

With  the  main  features  of  the  problem  clearly 
in  mind,  the  land  selected  should  be  as  nearly  as 
possible  suited  to  the  purpose  of  the  estate,  pos- 


PROBLEMS  205 

sessing  the  greatest  iiTiniber  of  natural  features 
that  will  work  m  to  advantage  with  the  scheme  in 
hand- 
In  such  an  estate  as  is  demanded  by  the  follow- 
ing problem,  the  entertainment  of  city  guests  by 
out-door  sports  and  the  general  pleasing  appear- 
ance of  the  design  are  of  equal  importance. 

Entertainment  is  to  be  the  main  purpose  of  the 
estate,  and  its  position  in  the  country  will  mean 
that  out-of-door  amusements  are  to  figure  largely 
in  this  entertainment. 

The  elaboration  of  the  scheme  along  the  line  of 
out-door  sports  will  depend  entirely  upon  the 
wealth  of  the  client,  and  will  determine  the  type  of 
development  to  be  employed,  and  the  introduction 
or  exclusion  of  features  which  require  special  ex- 
pense. 

If  the  estate  is  to  be  designed  on  lines  of  great 
magnificence,  there  may  be  formal  flower-gardens, 
conservatories,  and  even  hothouses  for  the  grow- 
ing of  vegetables  out  of  season;  private  golf- 
courses,  tennis-courts,  bowling-greens,  bridle- 
paths ;  in  fact,  there  is  scarcely  any  limit  to  the  de- 
velopment of  an  estate  of  this  kind  where  the 
money  expended  is  of  no  object. 

The  size  of  the  subdivisions  of  the  scheme  will 


206     LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 

be  determined  by  the  nTimber  of  guests  who  are  to 
be  entertained.  If  three  or  four  or  half  a  dozen 
come  at  one  time,  one  tennis-court  will  be  sufficient, 
but  if  twenty  young  sportsmen  are  in  the  habit  of 
spending  week-ends  there,  three  or  four  courts  will 
probably  be  found  necessary. 

"Wherever  possible,  the  natural  features  of  the 
countryside  should  be  retained  and  emphasized  to 
give  an  appearance  of  freedom  and  naturalness. 
For  instance,  if  there  is  a  plot  of  level  ground  at  a 
short  distance  from  the  house,  which  is  placed  upon 
a  slope,  this  plot  should  be  chosen  for  the  location 
of  the  tennis-courts  rather  than  spoil  the  slope 
nearer  the  house  for  the  sake  of  convenience.  All 
these  points  of  purpose  as  regards  sports,  gardens, 
size,  and  expense  of  stables  and  garages  must  be 
determined  before  the  house  itself  is  located.  The 
house  itself  should  really  appear  as  a  sort  of  key 
to  the  whole  scheme,  for  its  position  will  deter- 
mine, or  appear  to  determine,  the  location  and  the 
accessibility  of  all  the  parts,  although  these  parts, 
by  their  relative  importance,  have  actually  deter- 
mined the  position  of  the  house. 

The  house  should  be  designed  so  that  the  rooms 
which  are  most  often  in  use  will  have  the  most  fa- 
vorable exposure,  and  take  advantage  of  views. 


PEOBLEMS  209 

After  the  location  of  the  rooms  has  been  deter- 
mined upon  and  the  planting  near  the  house  is  be- 
ing considered,  accents  may  be  so  arranged  as  to 
attract  the  gaze  of  people  within  the  house  toward 
these  views.  In  Figure  47  an  open  space  in  the 
trees  has  been  left  so  that  the  occupants  of  the 
house  may  look  out  upon  Lake  Michigan.  The 
white  birches  used  in  this  position  serve  to  draw 
the  attention  to  the  view  by  their  color. 

When  the  location  of  the  house  and  the  subdivi- 
sions have  been  roughly  determined,  the  circula- 
tion is  the  next  important  consideration.  The 
forecourt,  from  the  entrance  to  the  house,  is  the 
keystone  of  the  circulation  scheme,  and  upon  it  de- 
pends the  efficient  handling  of  traffic  of  all  sorts, 
whether  for  pleasure  or  utility.  It  should  be  a 
kind  of  out-door  room  and  center  of  radiation;  it 
should  provide  for  the  parking  and  handling  of 
carriages  and  cars,  and  its  exit  toward  the  stables 
and  garages  should  be  studied  on  the  one  hand,  and 
on  the  other  its  communication  with  the  reception- 
rooms  of  the  house  should  be  given  equal  attention. 
The  number  of  vehicles  to  be  accommodated  will 
determine  the  scale  of  the  court. 

Of  first  importance  is  the  communication  of  the 
main    highway   with   the    entrance    court.     This 


210     LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 

drive  is  a  sort  of  semi-public  room.  There  is  often 
another  road  for  service,  tradesmen,  and  heavier 
teaming,  and  this  is  sometimes  entirely  separate, 
sometimes  one  with  the  pleasure  road,  and  some- 
times the  same  over  part  of  the  course  with  a 
branch-off  as  the  service  part  of  the  ground  is  ap- 
proached. Wherever  the  service  road  is  a  sepa- 
rate feature,  it  should  be  made  as  unobtrusive  as 
possible,  as  its  purpose  is  strictly  utilitarian.  The 
planting  of  this  road  is  therefore  essentially  eco- 
nomic. 

Before  the  shapes  of  the  planting  masses  and 
areas  are  finally  settled  upon,  the  appearance  of 
the  estate  should  be  considered  in  a  large  way,  and 
this  consideration  should  be  divided  into  two  mem- 
bers, the  public  and  private  views.  There  may  be 
an  intermediate  or  semi-public  class.  Certain 
parts  of  the  estate  are  visible  to  all  passers-by,  and 
this  aspect  is  known  as  the  public  view,  and  should 
be  treated  accordingly.  There  are  semi-public 
views,  or  glimpses  caught  between  the  drive  and 
the  main  thoroughfare.  These  would  be  seen  by 
those  coming  to  the  house. 

There  is  then  the  more  private  or  intimate  part 
of  the  ground,  which  is  reserved  entirely  for  the 
use  of  the  owner  and  his  friends.     This  should  be 


PROBLEMS  213 

visible  only  to  them,  and  the  presence  of  the  pri- 
vate part  of  the  grounds  need  not  be  seen  at  all 
by  strangers.  Stables  and  service  buildings  will 
come  in  the  semi-public  part  of  the  scheme;  gar- 
dens and  recreation  ground  will  fall  in  the  private 
class. 

After  the  shape,  size,  relative  importance,  and 
communication  of  the  different  members  of  the 
scheme  have  been  considered  in  large  masses,  they 
are  then  each  studied  in  detail,  always  bearing  in 
mind  the  fact  that  details  of  whatever  sort  should 
aid  in  creating  a  general  impression  rather  than 
detract  from  that  impression. 

In  the  method  employed  in  working  out  a  plan 
of  this  sort,  first  of  all  topographical  models  are 
made,  that  the  designer  may  familiarize  himself 
thoroughly  with  the  lay  of  the  land.  After  the 
general  location  of  the  main  features,  and  after 
details  of  cut  and  fill  in  connection  with  the  house 
and  more  formal  elements  of  the  plan  are  decided 
upon,  topographical  changes  should  not  be  made 
in  other  parts  of  the  scheme. 

The  location  of  all  these  features  is  determined 
by  means  of  ''thumbnail  sketches,"  tiny  plans  so 
small  in  scale  as  to  prevent  the  consideration  of 
anything  but  the  most  general  grouping  and  posi- 


214  LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 

tion  of  the  largest  features.  Of  course  tlie  topo- 
grapMcal  model  is  based  upon  a  careful  survey  of 
the  grounds,  and  the  thumbnail  sketches  are  made 
with  due  consideration  for  all  the  sections  and  ele- 
vations. Then  is  determined  the  position  of  the 
large  lawn  area,  the  boundaries  of  which  are  to  be 
planted.  These  are  in  turn  subdivided  more  or 
less  by  interior  planting  to  keep  the  open  space  in 
scale  with  the  planting  areas,  and  to  secure  the  sat- 
isfactory divisions  so  as  to  frame  distant  views, 
and  create  interior  views  and  vistas. 

In  the  two  plans  for  country  estates  shown  in 
Figures  50,  51  the  general  emphasis  of  the  design 
is  placed  entirely  on  such  an  arrangement  as  will 
secure  the  best  features  for  entertainment  of 
guests  and  for  out-door  amusements.  In  these 
plans  the  circulation  is  the  main  feature  of  the  de- 
sign. The  large  open  stretches  of  lawn  and  the 
trees  are  used  simply  as  boundaries  to  break  up  the 
lawn  areas,  and  are  arranged  so  as  to  relate  care- 
fully to  the  more  formal  or  architectural  parts  of 
the  design.  The  architectural,  or  formal  part  of 
the  design  is  in  turn  located  in  direct  connection 
with  the  buildings,  leaving  the  more  informal  por- 
tions away  from  the  architectural  features.  In 
the  general  arrangement  of  roads  and  planting  it 


Figure    50.      A   PLAN    FOR    A    COUNTRY    ESTATE 


PROBLEMS  217 

will  be  noticed  that  the  natural  contour  of  the  land 
has  been  an  important  feature. 

The  success  of  a  design  of  this  character  depends 
to  a  great  extent  upon  the  position  of  the  planting 
areas,  and  the  selection  of  plants  which  will  bring 
out  in  elevation  the  general  idea  that  the  flat  plan 
conveys.  In  case  trees  are  found  on  the  property, 
the  whole  design  should  relate  carefully  to  these. 

In  both  of  the  solutions  shown  a  feature  has  been 
made  of  the  small  stream  which  existed  on  the 
property.  In  one  design  the  water  has  been  fea- 
tured near  the  house  in  the  formal  garden  treat- 
ment, and  in  the  other  it  has  been  treated  largely 
in  an  informal  way.  A  plan  of  this  character 
should  be  made  in  consultation  with  the  architect 
who  is  to  design  the  buildings.  This  will  result  in 
the  most  satisfactory  solution  of  the  problem  in 
regard  to  general  form  and  location,  and  will  pro- 
duce harmony  in  the  architectural  and  landscape 
design. 


VI 

GAEDEN  DESIGN 

In"  a  country  where  gardens  are  the  exception 
rather  than  the  rule,  it  is  disappointing  to  find  that 
the  existing  specimens  are  not  always  such  as 
would  inspire  a  man  to  acquire  one  of  his  own. 
There  is  either  an  unkempt  riot  of  bloom  or  a  mel- 
ancholy severity  that  says  ^'Keep  off  the  grass" 
much  more  pointedly  than  any  sign.  There  is  the 
obvious  love  of  display  on  the  one  hand,  and  the 
passion  for  growing  things  on  the  other,  that  will 
pay  no  attention  to  the  selection  of  material. 

The  American  garden,  with,  of  course,  many 
well-known  exceptions,  is  frequently  thrust  under 
one 's  nose,  so  to  speak,  and,  as  the  show-part  of  the 
estate,  is  given  the  most  prominent  position.  The 
idea  is  not  noticeably  present  that  privacy  and  soli- 
tude are  part  of  a  garden's  charm,  and  that  the 
desire  for  seclusion  alone  may  lead  to  the  acquir- 
ing of  a  garden. 

It  is  to  such  a  garden-loving  race  as  the  English 
that  we  must  go  to  find  out  what  gardens  can  really 

218 


GARDEN  DESIGN  219 

do  for  a  man  and  for  Ms  home.  Nevertheless,  an 
intelligent  interest  in  gardens  is  daily  growing 
stronger,  and  our  gardens  are  not  so  few  and  far 
between  or  as  unfortunately  conceived  as  they 
were  a  few  years  ago. 

Of  course  a  garden  may  have  a  more  or  less  pub- 
lic side,  but  if  it  is  privately  owned  and  possesses 
no  privacy,  a  great  chance  for  enjoyment  and  even 
for  beauty  of  design  is  lost. 

Garden  design  is  one  of  the  most  interesting- 
phases  of  landscape  work,  because  it  combines 
many  features  found  separately  in  other  fields  of 
landscape  design.  The  garden  should  be  an  inti- 
mate sort  of  thing,  shutting  one  in  more  or  less, 
and  centralizing  one's  interest  in  the  things  which 
it  contains.  As  already  mentioned,  there  should 
be  more  privacy  in  a  garden  than  in  any  other  part 
of  the  estate.  It  may  sometimes  be  used  as  an 
out-door  room  (Fig.  52),  and  in  many  cases  where 
the  climate  permits  a  great  deal  of  time  is  spent  in 
the  garden  rather  than  in  the  house. 

The  great  prevalence  of  gardens  in  England 
seems  to  be  in  the  face  of  climatic  conditions,  so 
far  as  occupying  them  is  concerned,  but  the  enor- 
mous amount  of  wet  weather  is  so  well  suited  to 
the  growing  of  all  sorts  of  garden  planting  ma- 


220  LANDSCAPE  GAEDENING 

terial  that  this  fact  must  be  accountable  for  the  nu- 
merous gardens.  Notwithstanding  these  draw- 
backs, they  are  so  beautiful  as  to  be  inspiring  and 
satisfactory  though  it  may  rain  perpetually.  The 
out-door  room  feature  is  always  there,  to  be  sure, 
and  can  be  viewed  from  within,  when  it  is  impossi- 
ble for  one  to  be  out  of  doors  with  any  degree  of 
comfort. 

Garden  design  is  probably  one  of  the  oldest 
forms  of  work  in  landscape  gardening,  and  in  its 
most  formal  aspect  was  very  highly  developed  by 
the  ancient  Romans.  It  is  known  that  the  Greeks 
were  the  first  to  use  bulbs  in  planting,  and  the 
Egyptian  gardens,  particularly  those  of  Thebes, 
were  famous.  The  j^ounger  Pliny  in  his  writings 
described  gardens  with  clipped  box  hedges  and 
parterres  cut  into  shapes  of  animals,  displaying 
many  of  the  fancies  which  many  centuries  later 
ran  riot  over  Europe  in  topiary  work. 

The  Roman  garden  was  necessarily  formal,  be- 
cause it  generally  occurred  within  the  house  itself 
(Fig.  1)  as  a  central  court  laid  out  as  a  garden. 
This  necessitated  a  rather  rigid  and  architectural, 
though  highly  decorative,  treatment  of  the  plants 
used,  and  in  Pliny's  time  the  formal  garden  had 
attained  a  high  degree  of  excellence. 


Figure    51.       A    SECOND    I'LAX    FOR    A    COUNTRY    ESTATE 


GARDEN  DESIGN  223 

The  Renaissance  gardens  of  Italy  were  laid  out 
as  far  as  possible  on  the  lines  of  the  old  Roman 
gardens.  In  fact,  Lanciani  asserts  that  the  fa- 
mous gardens  of  the  Villa  Barberini  at  Castel 
Gondolfo  are  laid  out  almost  precisely  upon  the 
lines  of  Domitian's  villa.  The  great  interest  in 
antiquities  which  prevailed  during  the  Renais- 
sance led  to  the  unearthing  of  all  sorts  of  data  con- 
cerning ancient  gardens,  and  also  to  the  use  of  an- 
tique sculpture  as  accent  material  (Fig.  5). 

There  is  a  great  deal  of  talk  nowadays  about  the 
uselessness  and  artificiality  of  formal  gardens,  and 
the  necessity  for  ''going  back  to  nature"  and  copy- 
ing gardens  after  the  fields  and  woods.  This  point 
of  view  has  been  very  ably  attacked  by  Mr.  Regi- 
nald Blomfield  in  his  book  ' '  The  Formal  Garden  in 
England."  It  is  very  well  worth  while  reading 
for  any  one  who  wishes  to  make  a  careful  study  of 
the  formal  garden. 

The  fallacy  of  the  nature-lovers,  as  pointed  out 
clearly  by  Mr.  Blomfield,  is  that  nature  is  always 
harmonious  and  simple,  and  that  it  is  a  sacrilege 
to  attempt  to  change  her  appearance ;  yet  we  fre- 
quently find  that  the  very  men  who  are  insisting 
strongly  upon  copying  nature  are  those  who  will 
change  the  whole  face  of  the  landscape  if  allowed 


224  LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 

to  do  so,  introducing  features  of  a  sort  wliich  are 
entirely  out  of  place,  and  transporting  some  "bit 
of  nature"  to  a  spot  where  it  would  never  have  oc- 
curred had  nature  herself  been  allowed  to  dictate. 

The  point  that  is  missed  by  those  who  argue 
strongly  against  so-called  "rules  and  regulations" 
in  the  designing  of  landscape,  and  indeed  in  all 
branches  of  the  arts,  is,  that  man's  handiwork  is 
of  necessity  unnatural-looking.  For  this  very 
reason,  if  the  planting  about  and  in  close  connec- 
tion with  the  house  be  absolutely  naturalistic  and 
unrestrained,  the  house  will  appear  more  unnatu- 
ral and  out  of  place  than  ever  because  of  the  in- 
sistence of  the  surroundings  upon  contrasting 
features.  If  the  planting  about  the  house — and 
this  applies  to  gardens,  because  they  are  generally 
found  in  close  proximity  to  the  house — is  planned 
carefully  to  show  that  natural  objects  have  been 
used  by  man  to  express  his  ideas  and  to  harmonize 
his  house  with  the  countryside,  of  which  it  is  a 
part,  by  combining  nature  with  design,  the  result 
is  much  more  worth  while  than  a  tangle  of  natu- 
ralistic planting,  however  good  that  may  be  of  it- 
self and  in  its  own  place. 

Up  to  the  seventeenth  century  landscape  gar- 
dening was  essentially  garden  design.     Garden  de- 


GARDEN  DESIGN  227 

sign  in  turn  was  really  included  in  the  profession 
of  architecture,  and  almost  all  the  architects  of  the 
time  designed  the  setting  as  well  as  the  building. 
In  these  early  gardens  we  find  that  garden  and 
house  form  one  composition,  and  that  the  archi- 
tectural features  predominate  in  the  garden 
(Fig.  53).  This  is  essentially  the  emphasis  of 
the  formal  element,  and  it  is  well  illustrated  in 
the  Italian  gardens  of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth 
centuries.  The  villa  was  designed  as  the  control- 
ling feature  of  the  grounds,  massive  and  formal  in 
every  line.  The  degree  of  elaboration  depended 
upon  the  type  of  architecture  used,  the  size  of  the 
space  available,  and  the  amount  of  money  to  be 
spent  (Fig.  55).  The  design  in  its  larger  aspects 
was  simple  and  direct,  bringing  the  villa  into  a 
close  relation  with  the  grounds,  and  the  grounds  in 
turn  with  some  distant  view  or  special  landscape 
feature  such  as  water,  plant  growth,  or  topogra- 
phy. The  planting  was  mainly  evergreens  (Figs. 
54,  55)  of  large  scale,  using  the  decorative  plants 
as  accent.  The  whole  garden  was  designed  for 
use,  and  was  considered  really  as  an  out-of-door 
building,  the  outer  wall  as  a  framework,  and  the 
interior  hedge  and  plantations  as  divisions  or  par- 
titions. 


228  LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 

In  feudal  times,  preceding  the  development  of 
the  English  garden  of  the  Elizabethan  period,  the 
garden  was  of  necessity  in  the  castle  court  itself, 
or  within  an  adjacent  walled  inclosure,  and  archi- 
tectural surroundings  were  therefore  considered 
indispensable.  Even  after  the  need  for  defenses 
had  passed,  the  idea  of  architectural  propinquity 
had  been  so  thoroughly  stamped  on  garden  design 
that  the  outcome  was  the  formal  garden. 

Later,  beginning  in  the  eighteenth  century, 
when  horticulture  came  to  be  more  commonly 
practised  as  a  profession,  and  landscape  garden- 
ing was  regarded  as  the  province  of  horticulture 
rather  than  of  architecture,  the  gardens  were  con- 
sidered as  entirely  separate  problems,  making  no 
attempt  to  harmonize  with  the  house,  because  the 
emphasis  was  laid  entirely  on  the  horticultural 
side.  So  great  was  the  enthusiasm  for  the  new 
styles  of  naturalistic  planting  that  wonderful  old 
gardens,  literally  hundreds  of  years  old,  were  ruth- 
lessly chopped  and  torn  up  to  be  replaced  by  the 
sentimental  wilderness  popular  with  the  romantic 
tendencies  of  the  age. 

The  craze  for  the  open  lawn,  with  its  conven- 
tional border  of  shrubs  of  garden-like  or  wild 
character,  and  its  regular  shave  once  or  twice  a 


GAEDEN  DESIGN  231 

week,  is  in  every  way  as  artificial  a  conception  as 
the  formal  garden,  and  it  is  very  frequently  less 
beautiful.  Consequently,  at  that  time  a  contro- 
versy came  up  between  the  landscape-gardeners 
and  the  architects  that  has  continued  down  to  the 
present  date.  The  architect  looked  at  the  subject 
entirely  from  the  point  of  view  of  design,  and  the 
landscape-gardeners  considered  only  the  plant 
material  to  be  employed,  neither  contestant  real- 
izing that  each  side  was  of  equal  importance. 

The  arguments  concerning  the  relative  merits 
of  formal  and  informal  design,  which  really  may 
be  a  heritage  of  that  controversy,  are  looked  at 
from  an  entirely  different  point  of  view  at  pres- 
ent. The  architect  is  beginning  to  see  that  it  is 
impossible  for  him  to  understand  the  many  things 
necessary  to  good  architecture  and  at  the  same  time 
have  a  thorough  knowledge  of  horticulture,  because 
of  the  immense  possibilities  of  both  subjects.  This 
would  necessarily  hinder  him  from  indulging  in 
extensive  landscape  practice.  The  horticulturist 
also  realizes  that  a  sound  knowledge  of  plant  ma- 
terial alone  is  an  entirely  inadequate  equipment  for 
the  successful  practice  of  landscape  design.  Con- 
sequently the  architect  and  the  landscape-gardener 
are  now  working  more  in  harmony,  each  admitting 


232     LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 

that  it  is  possible  for  the  other  man  to  understand 
the  general  principles  of  design  that  form  a  com- 
mon meeting-point  for  the  discussion,  and  acknowl- 
edging that  a  satisfactory  result  cannot  be  obtained 
in  either  field  without  the  recognition  of  these 
principles  and  a  wholesome  respect  for  the  other 
man's  point  of  view. 

The  position  of  a  garden  and  the  character  of 
its  surroundings  are  the  great  primary  considera- 
tions in  working  out  a  problem  in  garden  design. 

If  the  garden  is  conceived  as  being  a  part  of  the 
house  design,  it  may  be  of  four  kinds,  patio,  court, 
entrance,  or  terrace.  The  type  which  is  of  great- 
est usefulness  will  of  course  be  selected  for  the 
problem  in  hand.  In  order  that  the  garden  may 
harmonize  with  the  buildings,  the  way  in  which 
the  idea  is  carried  out  must  agree  with  the  style 
of  architecture  which  in  turn  dominates  the  gar- 
den scheme,  and  it  is  this  consideration  alone  that 
determines  the  manner  in  which  the  scheme  is  to 
be  executed.  Before  discussing  these  four  types 
in  detail,  the  three  purposes  for  which  a  garden 
may  be  designed  must  be  recalled,  namely,  utili- 
tarian, museiun,  and  pleasure  purposes. 

Utilitarian  gardens  are  those  in  which  display 
is  considered  as  of  entirely  secondary  interest. 


Photojjraph  Ijy  Anderson 

Figure    54.       ARCHITECTURAL    PREDOMINANCE,    VILLA   d'eSTE,    TIVOLI 

ITALY 


GAEDEN  DESIGN  235 

Under  tMs  head  will  fall  the  gardens  that  have 
been  made  to  utilize  space  which  has  been  left 
available  for  one  reason  or  another,  but  which  was 
not  primarily  intended  to  be  used  as  a  garden. 
Thence  can  be  traced  the  development  of  the 
formal  garden. 

In  the  castles  of  feudal  times  considerable  space 
was  left  between  the  building  and  the  fortified 
walls,  and  in  some  cases  a  court  was  used  to  give 
light  and  air,  and  to  accommodate  the  peasantry 
and  their  flocks  and  herds  in  times  of  siege.  The 
space  was  left  primarily  for  that  purpose,  but  was 
later  utilized  for  fruit  or  pleasure  gardens,  and 
was  the  beginning  of  the  English  pleasance.  The 
esthetic  aspect  was  of  entirely  secondary  impor- 
tance and  was  of  later  development,  having  been 
added  merely  to  give  interest  to  what  might  other- 
wise have  been  unsightly.  Whenever  vegetables 
were  grown  the  space  was  doubly  useful.  As 
these  gardens,  then,  were  the  forerunners  of  the 
English  pleasance,  or  pleasure  garden,  the  devel- 
opment has  been  away  from  the  utilitarian  and  to- 
ward the  esthetic.  Inclosed  gardens  are  known 
as  the  ''court"  type,  and  are  now  found  in  our 
modern  apartment  houses  and  hotels. 

Entrance  courts  are  primarily  utilitarian,  and, 


IWlX.  ill 


"'I 


Figure   55.      COMBINATION  OF  AECHITECTURAL  AND  HOKTI- 

CULTUKAIi    ACCENT   MATERIAL   TO    EMPHASIZE    A 

VISTA,    VILLA    d'eSTE 


GAEDEN  DESIGN  237 

different  from  the  court  garden,  were  primarily 
for  convenience  rather  than  for  necessity.  They 
present  an  excellent  chance  for  combining  utility 
and  beauty,  inasmuch  as  they  offer  a  convenient 
approach  and  should  likewise  give  a  favorable 
first  impression. 

The  terrace  garden  is  not  particularly  utilita- 
rian unless  the  house  be  set  on  sloping  ground  and 
requires  a  level  space  about  it.  In  such  a  case  the 
terrace  garden  is  the  most  useful  and  beautiful  so- 
lution of  the  requirement.  The  illustration  (Fig, 
56)  shows  a  terrace  used  as  a  gradual  transition 
from  the  formal  design  immediately  surrounding 
the  house  to  the  more  naturalistic  planting  at  a 
greater  distance. 

The  patio  is  a  similar  esthetic  utilization 
of  space  left  for  utilitarian  purposes.  It  is 
found  in  buildings  of  the  Spanish  type,  and 
was  closely  related  to  the  English  "fore  court" 
although  this  last  may  be  termed  an  en- 
trance garden.  Many  of  these  courts  were  de- 
signed as  part  of  the  scheme  of  circulation.  These 
may  be  seen  in  the  early  English  manor-houses  as 
well  as  in  the  Italian  Renaissance  palaces,  such  as 
the  Strozzi  and  Riccardi  or  the  Palazzo  del  Te. 

Horticultural  gardens  are  the  most  important 


GAEDEN  DESIGN  239 

division  of  the  utilitarian  garden.  They  are  used 
for  three  purposes,  food-stuffs,  medicinal  plants, 
and  cut  flowers.  Under  the  food  heading  will  be 
included  orchards,  shrubs,  small  fruits,  and  vege- 
tables. 

The  kitchen  garden  is  a  good  type  of  utilitarian 
garden  which  is  often  attractive  in  appearance, 
for  in  it  vegetables  and  flowers  for  cutting  are 
often  grown  together  to  advantage,  thus  produc- 
ing almost  the  effect  of  a  pleasure  garden.  In- 
deed, for  a  small  suburban  residence  this  is  per- 
haps the  most  generally  successful  type.  Where 
medicinal  herbs  and  cut  flowers  are  grown  exclu- 
sively it  is  merely  a  question  of  getting  the  great- 
est value  out  of  the  soil,  though  nowadays  medici- 
nal gardens  are  virtually  obsolete. 

The  museum  garden  is  divisible  by  use  into  two 
branches,  the  educational  and  the  botanic:  Of 
these  the  first  has  far  greater  esthetic  possibilities, 
as  the  plants  may  be  displayed  with  greater  free- 
dom in  regard  to  appearances  where  their  position 
is  not  necessarily  determined  by  their  botanical 
classes. 

In  a  botanical  garden,  where  it  is  desired  to  dis- 
play all  possible  varieties  of  a  species,  many  ex- 
amples are  often  present  which  are  difficult  to 


240  LANDSCAPE  GAEDENINGl 

harmonize  with  their  surroundings,  and  the  result 
is  more  or  less  a  "filing  system"  of  living  botani- 
cal specimens,  often  incongruous  in  appearance. 

The  Arnold  Arboretum  in  Boston  is  an  excel- 
lent example  of  a  well-planned  botanical  garden. 
Much  attention  has  been  paid  to  appearances,  and 
the  display  elements  have  been  judiciously  feat- 
ured. The  large  conifers  grow  under  natural 
conditions  on  a  rocky  hill,  about  the  outskirts  of 
which  the  rhododendrons  and  mountain  laurel 
cluster,  while  the  gentler  and  more  fertile  slopes 
show  plants  of  the  plain-loving  varieties.  The 
natural  topography  varies  from  fairly  level  mead- 
ows to  a  rugged  hill  with  a  tumbling  brook,  and 
advantage  has  been  taken  of  all  the  natural  feat- 
ures suitable  for  the  display  of  plants  in  condi- 
tions which  as  nearly  as  possible  duplicate  their 
native  surroundings.  The  grades  have  been 
changed  only  where  the  building  of  drives  de- 
manded it.  This  is  one  of  the  most  successful  so- 
lutions of  a  botanical  garden  under  ideal  condi- 
tions, but  it  would  seldom  be  possible  to  reproduce 
these  conditions.  Of  course  the  amount  of  exotic 
material  employed  is  rigorously  prescribed  by  the 
climate,  as  it  is  entirely  an  out-of-door  garden. 

In  public  gardens  in  large  cities  the  purpose  is 


Figure    57.      GARDEN   TEMPLE   AT   MONTACUTE   HOUSE, 
ENGLAND 


242  LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 

somewhat  educational,  and  in  a  display  of  this  sort 
plants  are  grouped  not  according  to  their  botanical 
characteristics,  but  rather  on  account  of  their  soil 
requirements,  time  of  bloom,  and  hardiness.  The 
first  of  these  requirements  will  group  plants  of 
different  appearances  in  the  same  location.  The 
exposure  of  the  position  will  likewise  determine 
the  hardiness  of  the  plants  to  be  employed.  The 
time  of  bloom  is  more  of  an  esthetic  question,  as 
are  the  color  values  of  the  leaf,  flowers,  fruit,  and 
twig.  The  habit  of  growth  will  determine  largely 
the  position  of  the  plant.  Then,  too,  in  a  garden 
scheme  of  this  kind  special  features ,  are  often  in- 
troduced, such  as  a  flower  display  or  the  exhibi- 
tion of  exotic  plants.  Specimens  are  frequently 
grown  in  more  favored  localities,  and  transplanted 
into  the  garden  for  a  short  time  only  for  display 
purposes.  There  is  no  attempt  made  to  group 
plants  of  the  same  habitat  together,  but  the  plant- 
ing material  is  used  solely  on  account  of  its  shape, 
color,  and  quality,  and  upon  the  satisfactory  com- 
bination of  these  depends  the  success  of  the  result 
obtained. 

Pleasure  gardens  are  divided  into  two  classes 
according  to  whether  their  emphasis  is  architec- 
tural or  horticultural.     In  the  architectural  class 


Figure    58.      TOPIARY    AVORK 


aAEDEN  DESIGN  245 

the  individual  interest  of  tlie  plant  material  which 
is  used  to  achieve  the  design  is  of  secondary  im- 
portance. The  plants  are  arranged  and  selected 
solely  with  regard  to  their  size,  form,  color,  and 
scale.  This  allows  a  vast  latitude,  for  shapes  de- 
sired in  the  design  may  be  represented  by  any  one 
of  half  a  dozen  quite  different  species.  In  fact, 
plants  are  here  used  rather  as  architectural  mem- 
bers than  as  anything  else.  The  architecture  of 
the  buildings  and  other  accessories  should  pre- 
dominate, but  the  architectural  appearance  must 
extend  to  the  planting  also  if  the  garden  scheme  is 
to  be  successful.  Therefore  the  planting  must 
have  somewhat  the  same  stiffness  and  rigidity  as 
is  inherent  in  stone,  brick,  or  wood  in  so  far  as  the 
material  employed  permits. 

An  architectural  garden  should  possess  the  same 
characteristics  as  a  more  extended  architectural 
planting,  but  may  be  more  fancifully  treated  and 
more  highly  specialized.  A  very  interesting  ex- 
ample of  the  use  of  architectural  features  in  a 
decorative  fashion  is  seen  in  the  little  ''temples" 
which  occur  at  the  middle  of  the  side  retaining- 
walls  of  the  formal  entrance  court  at  Montacute 
House  (Fig.  57).  The  piers  of  the  balustrade  are 
crowned  by  stone  pyramids,  and  in  order  to  pro- 


246  LANDSCAPE  GAEDENING 

vide  some  contrast  of  elaboration  with  simplicity, 
and  of  curved  with  straight  lines,  these  little  cir- 
cular buildings  were  introduced  to  emphasize  the 
ends  of  a  secondary  axis.*  The  designer  of  a 
scheme  of  this  sort  may  say  to  a  horticulturist, 
*'At  this  position  I  wish  a  tree  or  shrub  of  such  a 
height,  form,  color,  and  texture,"  and  he  can 
safely  leave  it  to  the  horticulturist  to  determine 
the  species,  knowing  that  the  result  will  be  success- 
ful so  long  as  the  specifications  are  followed.  In 
such  gardens  plants  are  used  to  furnish  back- 
grounds, to  form  part  of  an  architectural  mass,  or, 
as  in  French  and  Japanese  examples,  they  may 
even  be  clipped  to  carry  out  the  details  and  forms 
of  a  style.  Topiary  work  is  not  essential  to  the 
formal  garden,  but  is  often  found  in  connection 
with  it,  and,  indeed,  would  be  out  of  place  in  any 
other  kind  of  garden,  unless  only  a  single  speci- 
men were  used.  Topiary  (Fig.  58)  is  not  of  suffi- 
cient importance  in  general  landscape  work  to 
permit  of  discussion  here. 

In  the  horticultural  pleasure  garden  the  inter- 
est of  the  owner  centers  upon  the  plant  itself,  and 
the  entire  arrangement  of  the  garden  has  as  its 
one  object  the  tasteful  and  advantageous  display 

*  See  pages  80-82. 


GARDEN  DESIGN  247 

of  the  plants  composing  it.  The  masses  of  plant- 
ing are  arranged  either  as  individual  plants  or  as 
plant  masses  setting  off  the  forms  of  the  plants 
which  compose  them  rather  than  designed  to  har- 
monize with  any  extraneous  features.  If  there 
are  any  architectural  elements,  they  should  ap- 
pear incidental.  The  season  at  which  the  garden 
is  to  appear  at  its  best  is  a  potent  factor,  and  the 
harmony  of  leaf  and  flower,  as  well  as  the  sizes  of 
the  plants,  must  be  carefully  considered. 

Since  the  question  of  garden  design  is  as  im- 
portant to  the  landscape-gardener  as  to  the  archi- 
tect, some  mention  of  the  subject  from  the  point  of 
view  of  each  should  be  given  here.  It  is  of  course 
impossible  in  a  limited  space  to  deal  in  an  exhaus- 
tive way  with  a  subject  as  large  as  garden  design. 

Design  and  the  relation  of  each  particular  type 
of  design  to  special  problems  will  form  the  briefs 
of  this  discussion.  The  particular  plants  to  be 
used  and  the  matter  of  architectural  details  and 
construction,  not  being  essential  design  require- 
ments, need  not  be  considered  at  the  outset. 

After  the  preliminary  scheme  of  a  garden  design 
has  been  determined  upon,  the  architect  can  de- 
sign special  architectural  features,  and  the  land- 
scape-gardener should  work  out  the  problem  of 


248  LANDSCAPE  GAEDENING 

plant  materials.  The  question  of  architectural  or 
horticultural  emphasis  must  be  decided  by  the  con- 
ditions of  the  problem  and  its  needs,  without  dis- 
cussion as  to  whether  the  garden  should  be  in  the 
formal  or  informal  style.  The  style  must  con- 
form to  the  problem;  the  problem  should  not  be 
arbitrarily  squeezed  into  a  style. 

It  has  long  been  known  that  the  old  gardens  of 
Europe  were  executed  with  certain  broad  princi- 
ples in  view,  and  that  they  were  not  laid  out  by 
men  on  the  grounds  without  plans,  but  were  care- 
fully designed,  with  elaborate  drawings,  and  then 
built  at  an  enormous  cost.  A  typical  example  of 
such  a  garden  is  the  Villa  d'Este  (Fig.  59). 

In  the  early  Roman  gardens  plant  material,  on 
account  of  the  climatic  conditions,  was  a  secondary 
consideration,  but  the  plant  material  in  a  modern 
garden  of  the  English  type  should  be  of  primary 
importance  for  the  same  reason.  On  account  of 
the  general  moisture  and  even  temperature,  it  is 
possible  to  grow  a  great  variety  of  plants  in  Eng- 
land, while  the  excessive  dryness  and  heat  of  Italy 
prevent  the  use  of  any  but  the  most  hardy  speci- 
mens. In  these  examples  the  style  was  primarily 
dictated  by  the  climate.  Almost  any  sort  of  cli- 
mate may  be  found  in  America,  and  consequently 


GARDEN  DESIGN 


249 


the  limitations  and  restrictions  imposed  by  local- 
ity, being  rigorous,  must  receive  careful  attention. 
A  comparison  of  New  England,  New  Orleans, 
and  Southern  Californian  conditions  will  illustrate 
climatic  differences.  New  England  winters  are 
long  and  cold,  with  a  late  S]_3ring  and  an  early  au- 
tumn. Therefore  only  plants  which  are  hardy 
enough  to  live  through  severe  weather  and  require 


rrT"'TTT 


DD  an  nil  0000 

nnDDJUDDllDO 
nnDDDDnilDQ 

DDdnnisnnDa 


Figure    59.      A   TYPICAL   ITALIAN    GAKDKN   PLAN,    VILLA   d'esTE 


250  LANDSCAPE  GAEDENINa 

only  a  short  time  for  flowering  and  fruition  are 
suitable  for  use. 

New  Orleans  is  warm  the  year  around,  with 
plenty  of  rain  and  moisture,  giving  a  large  range 
of  plant  material,  and  even  permitting  the  use  of 
some  vegetation  of  a  tropical  character. 

In  Southern  California  the  winter  is  mild,  but 
there  is  a  dry  season  extending  from  July  to 
December;  consequently  the  planting  material 
must  be  such  as  will  survive  long  periods  of 
drought  and  require  little  water.  If  a  plant  is 
well  suited  for  one  of  these  three  sets  of  conditions, 
it  will  often  be  impossible  to  employ  it  to  advan- 
tage in  either  of  the  others. 

In  an  analysis  of  garden  design,  every  problem 
must  be  considered  from  two  points  of  view :  first, 
that  of  use ;  second,  that  of  its  esthetic  value.  The 
use  is  of  primary  importance,  but  a  garden  is  gen- 
erally designed  for  pleasure  purposes,  and  so  the 
appearance  can  hardly  be  termed  secondary;  a 
garden  should  give  pleasure  as  well  as  comfort  to 
the  beholder. 

The  importance  of  the  topographical  features 
of  the  landscape  as  affecting  garden  design  may 
again  be  noted  in  a  comparison  of  the  French  and 
Italian  gardens.     The  magnificent  conceptions  of 


GARDEN  DESIGN  251 

Lenotre  could  never  have  been  executed  elsewhere 
than  on  a  broad  plain,  nor  can  one  conceive  of  such 
designs  as  those  of  the  Villa  d'Este  and  the  Villa 
Lante  as  existing  anywhere  but  on  their  own  rocky 
hillsides.  In  fact,  in  each  of  these  cases  the  gar- 
den owes  its  peculiar  charm  to  an  insistence  upon 
the  topographical  surroundings  and  contours,  and 
these,  instead  of  being  considered  as  limitations, 
have  been  of  great  assistance  in  determining  the 
garden  scheme. 

Japanese  gardens  are  often  built  upon  uneven 
ground,  because  they  generally  represent  the 
whole  countryside,  with  hills  and  plains  upon  a 
very  small  scale.  Informal  gardens  generally 
look  better  upon  uneven  ground,  for  it  is  difficult 
to  make  level  ground  appear  naturally  informal. 

If  the  gardens  are  designed  at  some  distance 
from  the  house,  the  character  of  the  architecture 
will  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  garden  design,  and 
the  garden  may  be  considered  as  an  entirely  sep- 
arate feature.  Gardens  in  connection  with  the 
house  and  treated  as  out-door  rooms  (Fig.  52) 
should  be  of  the  formal  type,  because  their  lines 
must  harmonize  with  the  architecture,  and  carry 
the  idea  of  the  building  beyond  the  limits  of  brick 
and  plaster.     These  may  be  called  architectural 


252  LANDSCAPE  GARDENING 

gardens.  It  must  be  remembered  that  a  formal 
garden  does  not  necessarily  mean  clipped  hedges ; 
there  is  as  wide  a  range  of  formal  style  as  of  in- 
formal. 

The  style  may  often  become  gradually  more  in- 
formal as  the  garden  recedes  from  the  house,  and 
in  this  way  may  give  a  gradual  transition  from 
natural  to  artificial  features. 

In  the  horticultural  gardens,  where  the  main 
interest  is  in  the  plant  material,  the  gardens  may 
be  either  formal  or  informal;  but  the  main  deter- 
mining factors  are  the  kind  of  soil  at  hand  and  the 
species  of  plants  which  it  is  desirable  to  use.  Of 
course  the  garden  should  be  so  designed  as  to  dis- 
play these  to  their  best  advantage.  Topography 
likewise  enters  here  in  determining  the  amount  of 
grading  which  will  be  necessitated  by  the  type  of 
garden  required,  and  conversely  in  the  adaptation 
of  the  garden  style  to  the  contour  of  the  existing 
landscape. 

The  informal  type  of  garden  is  not  necessarily 
more  nor  less  admirable  than  the  formal  type;  it 
is,  indeed,  more  often  unintelligently  used  than 
the  formal  garden,  and  consequently  is  receiving 
a  larger  amount  of  meaningless  praise.  In  fact, 
the  sort  of  adulation  that  is  often  heaped  upon  the 


GAEDEN  DESIGN  255 

informal  garden  has  done  a  great  deal  to  injure  it 
in  the  minds  of  those  who  believe  that  design  has 
some  value.  It  is  unfortunate  that  it  should  have 
suffered  in  this  way,  for  at  its  best  it  is  altogether 
a  desirable  type  of  planting. 

In  characterizing  the  architectural  garden  one 
might  say  that  the  planting  materials  are  used 
merely  for  form  and  color,  but  principally  for 
form,  and  that  they  may  be  considered  almost  as 
architectural  members.  Wherever  flowers  ap- 
pear in  a  formal  garden  it  is  not  on  account  of  the 
individual  beauty  of  the  flower  itself,  but  because 
a  color  note  is  needed  to  relieve  an  otherwise  som- 
ber color  scheme.  In  Figure  60  red  geraniums 
are  used  for  that  purpose.  The  vases  on  the  bal- 
ustrade at  the  Villa  Lante  are  an  ingenious  means 
of  introducing  plant  form  and  color  into  very 
strictly  architectural  surroundings  (Fig.  61). 

The  accent  in  the  formal  garden  is  generally  a 
piece  of  sculpture  or  an  architectural  feature,  such 
as  a  well-curb  (Fig.  62),  a  fountainhead  (Fig.  63), 
a  gate,  stairs  (Fig.  64),  a  bridge,  a  sundial,  or  a 
retaining- wall  (Fig.  65). 

Where  accents  occur  in  informal  planting  they 
are  as  a  rule  horticultural,  and  rely  upon  some  dif- 
ference in  the  accent  plants  from  their  surround- 


itiiHifintiirin-,;;,-^^- 


ll'/MfjlNlilliifi|if 

.liluiiuiiiiVUmih 


:,,:^  II.'....  Af  ;•>»•  \-      .' 


K 


Figure    61.      ARCHITECTURAL  VASES  USED  TO  INTRO- 
DUCE   PLANT    COLOR,    VILLA    LANTE, 
BAGNAIA,    ITALT 


GARDEN  DESIGN  257 

ings.     The  difference  may  be  in  form,  color,  qual- 
ity, or  size. 

As  has  been  said,  the  horticultural  garden  is 
divided  into  three  classes,  according  to  its  prac- 
tical uses:  the  cut-flower,  the  vegetable,  and  the 
fruit  garden.    It  is  not  necessary,  of  course,  that 


FlGtJRE    62.      FOUNTAIN   AT   VILLA   BORGHESE,    EOME 

these  be  ugly,  but  because  designed  entirely  for 
economic  purposes  the  gardens  will  necessarily 
appear  much  simpler  and  more  monotonous  than 
if  they  had  been  laid  out  with  some  emphasis  upon 
their  esthetic  side. 

Within  the  major  limitations  of  formal  and  in- 
formal, architectural  and  horticultural  emphasis, 


258  LANDSCAPE  GAEDENING 


FIGURE   63.      POMPEIAN   FOUNTAIN   HEAD 

position  and  topography,  there  is  considerable 
scope  for  the  exercise  of  imagination  by  the  gar- 
den-designer, although,  where  the  gardens  are  de- 
signed for  esthetic  purposes,  the  taste  of  the  client 
is  a  rather  powerful  determining  factor.  He  may 
:wish  to  make  his  garden  naturalistic ;  that  is,  of  a 


GARDEN  DESIGN  261 

sort  that  he  would  find  in  a  ramble  about  that  lo- 
cality, growing  in  natural  conditions.  He  may 
wish  to  make  it  picturesque  by  emphasizing  un- 
usual features  and  combinations,  or  he  may,  from 
Ms  interest  in  other  countries,  desire  a  large  dis- 
play of  exotic  plants.  These  questions  deal  not 
only  with  the  plant  material,  but  more  or  less  with 
the  arrangement.  One  cannot  use  the  irregular 
plant  material  in  formal  planting  schemes  any 
more  than  one  can  produce  an  appearance  of  in- 
formality by  the  use  of  stiff,  precise  plants  and 
clipped  hedges. 

The  villa  type  of  garden  is  one  which  must  be 
considered  most  frequently  in  America,  and  is  the 
type  employed  to  best  advantage  in  the  suburbs  of 
large  cities,  and  in  the  residential  portions  of  small 
cities.  The  garden  planting  in  this  case  is  consid- 
ered as  a  setting  for  the  house,  and  therefore 
spreads  itself  about  more  than  if  it  were  restricted 
to  a  definite  area,  as  in  the  case  of  the  out-door- 
room  type  of  architectural  garden.  Neighbor- 
hood planting  would  come  under  this  head.  The 
out-door  room  idea  may  exist,  indeed,  as  a  part  of 
the  scheme  of  villa  planting,  yet  the  restriction  of 
all  plants  to  such  a  purpose  would  lay  major  em- 
phasis on  a  strictly  formal  treatment,  and  would 


262  LANDSCAPE  GAEDENING 

not  help  to  tie  the  dwellings  in  with  the  more  or 
less  irregular  surroundings  of  American  suburbs. 

Where  views  can  be  seen  from  the  house,  the 
planting  of  the  villa  garden  should  be  such  as  to 
emphasize  the  prospect,  and  wherever  any  objec- 
tionable views  occur  they  should  be  screened  by  a 
judicious  use  of  shrubs.  Where  the  grounds  are 
of  sufficient  extent,  games  and  recreations  enter 
into  the  problem.  The  laying  out  of  tennis- 
courts,  bowling-greens,  swimming-pools,  and  even 
tracks  and  base-ball  diamonds  must  often  be  taken 
into  consideration  in  connection  with  villa  gar- 
dens. The  landscaping  of  a  villa  is  influenced 
largely  by  its  scale,  but  it  occurs  as  a  sort  of  middle 
ground  between  the  formal  and  the  informal  types, 
using  sometimes  the  freedom  of  the  one,  and  some- 
times the  restramt  of  the  other. 

Topiary  work  has  long  been  associated  with 
formal  gardening,  and  would  appear  to  be  at  vari- 
ance with  many  types  of  planting,  and  altogether 
individualistic  (see  Eig.  58).  Upon  close  study, 
one  finds  that,  instead  of  being  sharply  differenti- 
ated, this  t3rpe  of  planting  is  really  a  form  of  th^ 
gardenesque.  Topiary  was  introduced  into  Eng- 
land by  William  of  Orange  and  Queen  Mary  in  the 
sixteenth  century.     It  became  a  fashion  among  the 


Figure    65.      EETAINIXG   "WALL   AT   VILLA   FALCONIEKI, 
FRASCATI,    ITALY 


264     LANDSCAPE  GAEDENING 

wealthy  class  in  England,  and  gradually  spread, 
so  that  even  at  the  present  time  it  is  common  to  see 
trees  clipped  in  various  forms  in  the  gardens  of  the 
smaller  homes. 

Topiary  work  may  be  divided  into  three  types 
of  planting :  the  parterre  type,  in  which  the  plant- 
ing is  to  be  seen  from  one  point;  the  formal  type 
of  planting,  in  which,  though  the  plants  are  seen 
in  elevation,  they  are  used  to  bring  out  some  par- 
ticular feature  in  the  design;  and  finally  the  type 
in  which  trees  of  different  shapes  and  sizes  are  em- 
ployed much  the  same  as  in  gardenesque  planting, 
where  plant  material  is  grouped  and  dotted  about 
without  regard  to  its  composition  in  mass.  The 
plants  used  for  this  work  are  those  which  are  natu- 
rally formal  or  peculiar  in  shape ;  those  which  are 
restrained  by  clipping;  and  plants  which  have 
been  made  to  grow  dwarfed  by  clipping,  budding, 
or  by  binding  the  roots. 

Almost  all  garden  design,  then,  can  be  analyzed 
as  falling  more  or  less  under  one  of  the  two  great 
divisions,  the  formal  and  the  informal.  The  gar- 
den is  a  personal  sort  of  thing,  really  the  most  in- 
timate part  of  any  landscape  scheme,  and  if  it  does 
not  reflect  something  of  its  owner,  it  falls  short  of 
its  possibilities.     It  may  be  as  small  as  one  of  the 


GARDEN  DESIGN  265 

tiny  cottage  gardens  of  England  or  as  large  as  tlie 
gardens  at  Versailles,  but  it  is  sure  to  conform  to 
certain  general  principles,  not  rules.  Stated  sim- 
ply, it  may  be  said  that  every  part  of  a  garden  must 
contribute  toward  the  beauty  of  the  general 
scheme,  and  that  it  will  not  do  this  if  it  seems  to 
be  present  without  a  purpose.  Every  part  of  a 
garden  should  be  esthetically  utilitarian. 


THE  END 


INDEX 


INDEX 


Accent, 

architectural,  34 

architectural   features,    33,    153, 
255,  258 

axial,  75,  82 

color,  93,   101,   102 

exotic,  34 

horticultural,    54,    57,    58,    153, 
236,  258 

line,  134 

planting,  103,  147 

plants,   54,   83,   116,   134 

sculpture,  12 

solution,  58 

water,    54 
Accessories, 

architectural,  11,  32,  43,  66,  67, 
83,  183,  245,  255,  25S 

in  Italian  gardens,  33,  130 

in  Japenese  gardens,  126 

naturalization   of,   34,   43 

planting,    116 
Agriculture,  15-16 

relation  to  landscape  gardening, 
15 

soils,  16,  152 
American  home,   3,   168-178 
Architect,    cooperation   with   land- 
scape architect,  6,  231,  232, 
247 

point  of  view,  231 
Architecture,  5-12 

architectural  point  of  view,  231 

definition  of,  7 

elevation,  expresses  plan,  6,  II 

French,    28 

harmonize  with  surroundings,  6, 
7 

influence    of    natural    surround- 
ings on,  7,  8 

planting,   42,    105,   108 

unity  by  planting,   III 
Approaches,  71,  72 
Arnold  Arboretum,  240 
Areas,  rhythm  in,  240 


269 


Axes, 

axial  lines,  58 

created,  81,  82 

cross,   75 

definition  of,  80 

emphasis  of,  119 

existing,   80,  81 

formal,   80 

informal,  80 

in  garden  design,  80,  81,  236,  246 

plant  material,  80 

primary  and  secondary,  SO 

walks  on,  II 

B 

Backyard,  183,  184 
Balance,   63,   64,   66,   69,   80,    lOI, 
124,   126 

accent,  63 

color,  63,  125 

obvious,   63 

occult,   63 

symmetrical,  63,  65,  125 

unsymmetrical,  63,  65 
Beauty,    result   of,    25 
Beauty  and  landscape  design,  19 
Blomfield,  Reginald, 

Formal  Garden  in  England,  223 
Bowling  Green,  262 
Buildings,  location  of,  70 


Castles  of  the  Rhine,  8 

medieval,  70 
Character,  Plant,  4 

flower,   149 

form,    143,   157 

fruit,    150 

height,   142 

leaf,  148,  152 

twig,   150 
Chateau  of  France,  8 
Chickenyard,    70 

Circulation,  22,  71,  72,  77,  78,  164, 
172,  237 

and  planting,  80 


270 


INDEX 


City,  needs  in,  159 

Climate,  influence  upon  design, 

and  exotic  material,  240 

and  use,  219 

California,  249,  250 

England,  219 

influence  on  style,  248 

New  England,  249 

New  Orleans,  249,  250 
College,  buildings  and  grounds,  111, 

193,  194,  195 
Color, 

accent,  93,  102,  103 

antipathies,   92 

appreciation,  92 

attention  secured  by,  186 

autumn,    57,    99 

balance,   96,    101,    124 

blossom,   149 

in  city  street,  163 

clashes,   95 

color   accent,   88 

combinations,  92 

complementary,  87,  89,  102 

contrast  of  value,   102,  115,  126 

cycle,  89,   100 

distance  and,  97 

dominant  note,  93,  95,  96,  103 

harmony,  95,  96 

horticulture,  88 

hue,  86,  87,  101 

ideas  from  planting,  15,  93 

intensity,  86,  88,  95 

leaf  and  fruit,  150 

right,  86 

love  of  bright  colors,  185 

modifying  note,  93,  95,  101 

names,  88 

neutrality,  88 

painting,  15 

perspective  by,   177 

plants  ( see  Plant  Materials ) 

primary,  89,  98 

problem  in  landscape  design,  94 

psychological  phenomena,  91 

repetition,  95 

rhythm,  67 

rotation  definition,  100 

seasonal  changes  as  to  color  in 
plants,  90,  97,  98,  101,  152 


secondary,  89 

selection  of  shrubs,  39,  141,  152, 
177 

spring,   99 

summer,  99 

value,  86,  95,  101,  115,  148,  151 

winter,  91,  99,  111 
Community  cooperation,   162 
Composition  of  planting  areas,  80, 
24,  116 

definition  of,  30 

of  plants,   107 

in  landscape  gardening,  31,  34 

silhouette  in  elevation  of  plants, 
116 
Cooperative    landscape    gardening, 

159,  168 
Cornell  University  Campus,  194 
Country  estates,  204-217 

development,  205 

division,    210 

drives,  209 

kinds,  204 

lawns,    214 

privacy,  210 

service,  210 

stables,  213 

tennis  courts,  205 

use,  205 
Conventional,  42,  48 


Design, 
attitude  of  designer  towards,  20, 

21 
areas  in,  27,  42,  45 
balance,  63,  69,  96,  124 
basis  of  formal,  95 
basis  of  informal,  75 
circulation,  71,  72,  209 
deals    with    the   placing   of    the 

object,  24 
definition  of,  25 
dynamic  equilibrium,  67 
esthetic,  21,  24 
foreign  elements  in,  31 
formal,  see  formal  design 
function  of,  22,  24,  25 
geometrical,  29,  47,  72 
general  considerations  of,  20 


INDEX 


271 


influence  of  landscape  on,  7,  105 

informal,  see  informal  design 

interrelation   of   parts   of   a   de- 
sign, 24 

landscape  design,  27 

line  division  in,  24,  31,  46,  77 

line  drawing,  85 

monotony,  64,  66 

petty  insistence  on  details,   19 

plan,  6,  7 

practical,  21,  24,  69 

principles  of,  20,  69 

province  of  a  designer,  24 

repetition,  64,  68,  69 

rhythm,  64,  66,  67,  69 

rules  of,  18 

satisfactory  in  appearance,  22 

sequence,  69 

spontaneous,  22 

success  of,  44 

static  equilibrium,   66 

structure,      paramount      impor- 
tance, 27 

underlying  principles   of,   20 

units  in,  71 

unity  in,  64,  66,  124,  214 

use  considered  first,  21,  24 

variety  in,  64, 
Drainage, 

agricultural,  16 

bog  gardens,  16 

engineering,   18 

lawns,   16 

reason  for,  18 

rock  gardens,  16 

soil,   16 

subsurface,  18 

surface,  18 

tennis  courts,  19 

walks,   19 
Drives       (see      Roads      and      Ap- 
proaches ) , 
Durham  Cathedral,   25 
Duty  to  Neighbors,  70 
Dynamic  equilibrium,  67 

E 

Egyptian  gardens,   12 
Emphasis, 

architectural,  227,  248 


horticultural,  228,  248 
Engineering,   17-19 

drainage,      16,      18.     See      also. 
Drainage 

esthetic  ideal,  19 

practical  consideration,   19 

relation    to    landscape    architec- 
ture, 17 

survey  mental,  IS 

topographical  planting,  11,  157 
Estate, 

division  of,  70,  71 

farm,  120 

large  country  house,  120,  204 

planting,  107 

small   home,   120,   168 

suburban,   120 


Faulkner  Farms,  153 
Foreign  travel,  3 
Fore-court,   237 
Formal  design,  58,  72,  75,  76 

areas,  44,  45,  46 

axes,  75,  80 

city  building,  8 

circulation,  72 

compared  with  informal,  48 

country   estate,   214 

definition  of,  36 

diff"erentiation  of  two  types,  8 

geometrical  basis  of  plan  in,  76 

geometrical   design,   28,   63 

in   landscape   gardening,   36 

planting,  11,  36,  44,  53,  116,  120 

"schools,"   36,    133,    193,    245 

symmetry,  82 

unity  in,  51 
Formal  Gardens,   199,  227,  235 

arguments  for,  231 
Fountainebleu,  13 
Fountains,  32,  82 
France, 

plants,  157 

design,  250 
Function,  see  design 

G 

Gardens, 

America,   160,  218,  248 
Faulkner  Farm,   153 


272 


INDEX 


Holm    Lea,    54 

Mount  Vernon,  123 
architectural,  42,  242,  245,  252, 

255,  257 
botanic,  239 
colonial,  123 
cut-flower,  257 
educational,  119 
Egypt,  219 
England,  218,  248,  265 

castle,   227,   228,  235 

climatic  conditions,  219 

early  gardens,  227 

Elizabethan  period,  228 

English  pleasance,  235 

enclosed,   235 

esthetic  value  of,  250 

entrance,  232,  235 

feudal    gardens,    228 

flowers  in,  254 

Montacute  House,  245 

planting,    111,   248 

Warwick  Castle,   142 

Wilton  House,  53 
formal,  61,  78,  120,  252,  262,  264 
France,  246,  250,  265 

Carpeau,  found  in  Paris,  67 

Versailles,  66,  265 
Fruit,   257 
Greece,  220 
hillside,  70 

horticultural,  237,  242,  246,  252, 
257 

cut   flowers,   257 

display,  247 

pleasure,  246 

vegetable,  257 
informal,  251,  252,  264 
Italy,   12,  51,  70,   116,   123,  220, 
223,    248,   249,   250 

Boboli  Gardens,  32 

Florentine,  124 

Palaces   of   Renaissance,   237 

Palazzo  de  Te,  237 

planting,    124,    130,    157 

Roman,   220 

Strozzi   Palace,   237 

Villa  Barbini,  19 

Villa   Borghese,  257 

Villa  Falconieri,  263 


Villa    d'Este,    236,    248,    249, 
250,  251 

Villa  Lante,  250,  251,  253,  254 

Villa  Medici,   129 
Kinds  of. 

Court  type,  51;  78,  228,  251 

Garden  type,  228,  235 

Villa  type,  228,  262 

plant  materials  in,  126 

planting,   137,   158,  246 
kitchen,   239,   257 
outdoor  building,  227 
outdoor  room,  78,  219,  251,  258 
Patio,   232 
Public,  240 
Purposes  of,  232 

utilitarian,  232,  235,  239,  250, 
265 

museum,  239 

pleasure,  235,  250 
Spain,   237 

Terrace,  232,  238,  250 
Topiary,  types  of,  264 
Topography  and,  250,  251,  252 
use  of,  219,  250 
utilitarian,  232,  235,  250 
vegetable,  see  kitchen 
Availed,  43 
year-round,   99,   151 
Garden  cities,  159 
Garden  design, 

architectural  emphasis,  242,  251, 

255 
axes,  80,  81,  236 
botanical,  239,  240 
character    of    its    surroundings, 

232 
educational,   239,   242 
elaboration  of,  227 
entrance,  232,  235 
esthetic,  250 
forecourt,  232,  237 
formal,  14,  223,  228,  252 
garden  and  house,  one  composi- 
tion, 227 
garden  type,  251 
harmonize  with  house,  232,  251 
horticultural,  239 
horticultural  emphasis,  239,  242, 
252 


INDEX 


273 


informal,  250,  252,  255 

in   landscape   gardening,   220 

museum,  232,  239 

patio,   232,   237 

pleasure,   232,   235,   239,   250 

position,  232 

privacy  in,  218 

purposes,  232,  250 

sculpture,  12 

style,  232,  248,  252 

terrace,  232,  237 

topographical      influence,      240, 
250,   251 

transitional,   252 

utilitarian,   232,  239,  250 
Golf  links,  196-204 

design  of,   196 

direction  of  play,   199 

distance  between  holes,  200 

location  of  club  house,  200 

in  parks,  120 

planting,  196,  203 

private,  205 

purpose  of,  196 

topography  of,   199 
Grass  used  as  a  decorative  feature, 
192 

H 

Harmony      between      house      and 
grounds,   228 

Harvard   University,    194 

Herculaneum,  12 

Hermae,  use  in  design,  12 

Holm   Lea,    Brookline,   Mass.,   54 

Home  grounds,  1,  41,  120,  168,  172, 
177,   239 
design  of,  172 
entrance  walk,  173 
flower  garden,   173 
individuality,  160,  162,  167 
intensive,   development,    159 
lawn,  16,  33,  46,  171,  177,  228 
private  portion  of,  172,  174 
service,  172,  179,  184,  185,  210, 

213,  173 
simplicity,  186 
imity  in,  41 
utilitarian  aspect,   184,   185 

Horticultural  varieties,  89 


Horticulture,  16,  17 
accent,  54,  115,  125 
economic  and  decorative,  17 
emphasis,   112,   115 
horticulturist      and      landscape 

gardening,   231 
horticultural  groups  of  planting, 

17 
relation  to  landscape  gardening, 
16 
House, 

design  of,  42 
location  of,  18 
surroundings,  42 


Informal  design,  46,  53,  61,  72,  79 

arguments  for,  217 

axes,  80,  83 

city,  41 

compared   with    formal,    48,    63, 
72,   116,   153 

definition  of,  36 

disposition  of  areas,  36,  46,  61, 
153 

elevation  and  plan,  116 

freedom,  46 

garden,  120 

geometrical  basis  of  plan  in,  72, 
79 

influence    of    natural    surround- 
ings, 7,  120 

in  landscape  gardening,   36 

naturalistic  planting,  44,  137 

planting,  8,  36,  52,  53,  61,   116, 
134,  193 
Intensive    landscape    development, 
159 

Interest,  centralization  of,  219 

J 
Japanese,    25,    48,    51,     126,    218, 

219,   251 
Japanese  print,  63 

K 

Kitchen  garden,  71,  239 

L 
Landscape  architect,  61,  239 


274: 


INDEX 


attitude  towards  design,  20,  21 
client,  44,  45,   171 
client's  point  of  view,  44,  45,  171 
cooperation  with  architect,  6,  42, 

217,  231,  232,  247 
equipment  of,  4 
freedom  in  work,  44 
knowledge    of    plant    materials, 
94,  105 
LenStre,  Andre,  251 
materials  of,  27,  see  also  Plant- 
ing Material 
point  of  view,  231,  232 
Landscape   architecture, 
comprises 

agriculture,  15 

architecture,  5 

engineering,  17 

forestry,  5 

horticulture,  16 

painting,   14 

sculpture,   12 
American      landscape      architec- 
ture, 3,  14 
in  Middle  West,  7,  42 
in  city,  8 
Landscape    design, 
approach,  172 
areas  in,  45,  46 
beauty,  most  potent  factor,  19 
circulation,   172 
conditions  governing,  27,  39 
college  groups,  plan  of.  111 
color,  problem,  94 
composition  in,  34 
country  estate,  204 
definition  of,  28,  30 
dominant  idea,  51 
elevations  in,  29 
esthetic  value,  7,  190 
fitness  for   its  function,  84,  178 
formal   types,  46,   53-58 
foundation  of,   69 
function  of,  27 
golf  course,  196 
harmony  of  elements,  31 
harmony  with  surroundings,  27, 

46 
home  grounds,  136 
individuality  of,  31 


informal  types,  46,  53,  61,  72 

Japanese  school,  4S 

less  artificial  than  other  forms 
of  design,  27 

limitations  of,  27,  45 

line  divisions,  45 

location  of  buildings,  70 

materials  of,  27 

painting,  contrast  with,  24,  93 

plan,  the  primary  consideration, 
7,  28 

planting  masses,  46 

practicability  in,  69 

primary  requisite  of,  84 

repetition,  69 

rhythm,  69 

service  portion,  210 

"schools,"  36 

simplicity,  186 

spontaneity,  48 

structure    of    paramount   impor- 
tance, 27 

three   dimensions,  28 

two  elevations  of  same  plan,  30 

unity,  32,  53,  64,  66 

use  of  water,  48,  227 

use  of  topogi-aphy,  193,  199,  204, 
213,  227,  240,  250,  251 

utilitarian  aspect,   21,   181,   184, 
190 

views,  172,  227 

villa  types,  227 
Landscape  survey. 
Laundry  Yard   (see  Service) 
Lawn,  33,   171,  177 

open   lawn,   16,  46,  228 

drainage,  16 
Lenotre,  Andre,  251 
Lorraine,  Claude,  14 
Love  of  flowers,   181 

M 

Models,  213 
Monotony,  66,  161 
Montacute  House,  245 
Mount  Vernon,  123 
Municipal     control     of     landscape 
gardening,   162 

N 
Native  conditions,  51 


INDEX 


275 


Native  planting, 

Nature,      102;      harmonious     and 

simple,  223 
Norman,  English,  34 

O 

Offscape,  70 

Organizing  for  street  improvement, 

163 
Orchards,  17,  239 


Painting,   14,   15,  83,  93 
contrast  with  landscape,  93 
influence    in    landscape    design, 

14,  23 
working    out    compositions,    24, 
93,  94 
Parks, 

city  types,  119 
country,    120,    133 
naturalistic,  120 
planting,    108,    154 
sculpture  in,  13 
Washington,  D.   C,   13,   119 
Parterre,  58 
Perspective,  66,  67,  75 
plant  color,  98,  177 
planting,   66,   177 
"Picturesque   and    Beautiful,"    14 
Planning  and  elevation,  30 
expressing  plan,  6,  7,  11 
plan  and  elevation  correlated,  28 
Planting,  materials  of, 
annuals, 

autumn   color,   57 
background,    71,    103,    107,    167, 

246 
bedding  plants,   123 
characteristics   of   types,    148 
classification,   123,   147,   157 
characteristics,  148 
color,  89,  95,   184,  186 
colors  in,  90,  97,  98,  100,  101, 

242 
form,  130,  144,  242,  245,  257 
habit  of  growth,  242 
height,  142,  245 
hardiness,  242 
odor  of  flowers,  137,  150 
quality,  147,  257 


size,  257 

soil,  requirements,   152,  242 

texture,  97,  149,  152,  246 
classifled    as    to, 

time  of  bloom,  242 

use,  44,  93,  124 

winter  effects,  91,  99 

value,  148,  151 

varieties,  22 
characteristics,  57,  93 
color  value,  97,  242 
colors  in,  89,  90,  97,  98,  100,  182, 

242,  245,  246 
color  changes,  90,  98,  99 
composition  of,  107,  108 
create   new  interest,   111 
color  rotation,   100 
educational  value  of,  183,  239 
esthetic,  78,  108,   115,  190,  203 
facers,  103,  137,  138 
flller,   103,    147,   157 
fitness  for  function,  123 
foreground,  107,  133 
framing  distant  view,   106 
filler  shrubs,  43,  103 
greenhouse  plants,  123 
growth  of,  69,  157 
herbariums,  123 
hillside  planting,  105,  240 
index  of,   for   office,   141 
individuality,   16 
leaf  arrangement,   148 
native,  39,  138 
perennials,  123 
planting  and  handling,  16 
propagation,   16 
pruning,   1 6 

psychological  effect  of  color,  92 
requirements  of,  39 
seasonal  changes,  90,  91,  97,  98, 

138 
selection  of,  36,  126 
screening,  22,  106,  107,  112,  142, 

167,    173,    177 
setting  for  special  features,  107 
smoke  and,  41 
specialized  plants,  41,   138 
specimen,  242 
spraying,  16 

subdivision  of  schemes,   112 
success    of    landscape    work    de- 


276 


INDEX 


pends  upon  plant  materials, 

105 
to     aid     architectural     schemes, 

107,  112 
topiary,  137,  246 
to   unify   architectural   composi- 
tion, 108 
trees,  123,  239 
types,   plants,   41 
use  of  plants,  106 
used  architecturally,   1S3,  246 
utilitarian,    78,    112,    115,    190, 

203 
vegetable,   189,  239 
vines,  186 
Plants,   use  of, 

about  house,  8,  42,  174,  224 

about  lawn,   16,   172 

accent,  42.  43,  54,  57,   101,  103, 

115,  116,  125,  126,  147,  167, 

209,  227,  248,  255 
and  architecture,  42,  107 
and  sculpture,  12 
annuals,   123 
axes,  58,  82 
background,    71,    103,    107,    144, 

167,  246 
balance,   80,   124 
barriers,  112 
biennials,    123 
bold  effects,  133 
boulevards,   119 
circulation,    174 
city,  11,  40,  116,  119,  154,  159 
city  square,  44,   119 
classification  of,  112 
climate,  123,  249,  250 
colors   in,   90,   97,   98,    100,    101, 

115,   242 
composition,  80,  87 
color  combinations,  15 
color  in,  256 
college  groups.  111,  195 
colonial  garden,  123 
contrast,  43 

country,   119,   120,   154,   116 
create  view,  214 
create  interest,   111 
decorative,  8,  227 
different  kinds  of,  119,  130,  154, 

168 


direct  view,  115 

display  of,  242 

distant   planting,    107,    133,    137 

divisional,  173,  191,  214,  227 

economic,  17,  112,  115,  142,  150, 

171 
educational   value   of,    190,   239, 

242 
elevation,   107,   116,   154 
emphasis,  43,  95,  106,   111,   112, 

137,   141,   248,  257 
England,    141 
English  border,  137,  195 
enhance  view,  22 
estate,  107 
esthetic,    17,    78,    108,    112,    115, 

190,  203 
exotics,  111,  125,  174,  242 
exotic  material,  115,  125 
facer,  91,  123,  137,  138,  144 
farms,   120 
filler,  43,    123,    144 
fitness    for    function,    123,    147, 

151,  161,  245,  250 
form,  130 
formal,  11,  36,  42,  44,  53,  61,  82, 

102,   116,   130,   133,  203 
formal  gardens,   120 
for  immediate  effect,   130 
foreground,    133,   257 
frame  view,  13,  67,  83,  115,  129, 

214 
France,  124,  157 

for  architectural  effect,  134,  248 
gardenesque,    definition    of,    43, 

134,   137,  203,  264 
gardenlike,   228 
golflinks,  120 
harmony,   107,   111,  157 
herbaceous,   167 

horticultural  emphasis,  112,  174 
hillside,   105,   106,   154 
immediate  effect,   130 
individual  interest,  54 
influence     of     surroundings     in 

selection   of,   7,   11,  42,   120, 

142,   147,   153,   158,  227 
informal,  36,  39,  52,  61,  62,  130, 

258 
interest  in  plant  itself,  44 


INDEX 


277 


Italy,  123,  124,  126,  157 
Japanese,  120,  126,  137 
large  estate,   120 
mass,  22,  46,  57,  153 
naturalistic,    definition    of,    137, 

138,  224,  228,  237 
naturalistic,    44,    53,    120,    134, 

137,  138,  224,  258 
native  materials,  39,  138,  154 
native,  40,  158 
outline,   46,    61,    130,    133,    153, 

210 
parks,  108,  119,  133,  154 
parkways,    119,    120 
park-like,  definition  of,  134,  138, 

167,  193 
perennials,  123,  137 
playgrounds,  191 
point  of  view,   107,  lOS 
private      portion     of      grounds, 

174,    181 
privacy,   107 
repetition,  43,  80 
restrained,  46,  53,  116,  134 
rhythm,  80 

scale,  43,  93,  114,  125,  130,  137 
screen,    22,    106,    107,    112,    142, 

157,  167,  172,  173,  177,  189 
seasonal,     100,     134,     141,     151, 

251 
shapes,   of   planting  masses,   46, 

61,  153,  210 
service,  173 
shrubs,  123,  130,  167 
silhouette,  61,  107,  116,  137,  154, 

157 
sizes,  of  masses,  116 
specimen,   167 
soil,  16,  123,  242 
street,  trees,   164,   161 
streets   as  units,   120 
style,    123,  248 

suburban,    116,    119,    154,    168 
subtropical,  115 
successful  solution,  116,  154 
texture,  54 
to  increase  value,  181 
topiary,  137,  246 
topography,  105,  106,  157 
tree   planting,   161 
trees,  123,  164 


unity,  8,  101;  definition  of,  103, 

108,    124,    125 
unrestrained,   138,  224 
utilitarian,   78,   138,   224 
value,  of  planting,  15,  93 
variety,  192 
width  or  areas,  61 
wild,    definition    of,    134 
winter,  91,   101,  111 
woodland,  definition  of,  134 
work  of  nature,  36 

Preliminary   sketches,   48 

Price,  Sir  Uvedale,  14 

Problem,  influence  on  plan, 
character  in  solution,  83 
condition  governing,  39 
more  than  one  solution,  21 
solution   of,   69 
utilitarian,  21 

Pompeii,   12 

Public  gardens,  242 

R 

Repetition,   64,  66,   69,   80,  95 
Reynolds,    Sir   Joshua,   4,   83 
Roads,  71,  195,  240 

cut  and  fill,   18 

design  of,  22 

laying   out  of,   18 

natural  profile,  IS 

percentage  of  grade,  18 

subordinate,  to  esthetic  ideal,  19 

to   agree   with   contours,    18 
Rodin,  methods  of,  30 
Rhythm,  64,  66,  67,  69,  80 

S 

St.  Cloud,  13 

School  grounds,   190-196 

educational  value  of  plants,  190 

garden  plots,  192 

planting,    193 

use  of,  191 
Screening,  see  planting. 
Sculpture,    12-14 

importance   in    landscape    archi- 
tecture,  12 

location,   12,  34 

position  and  function,   12 

Rodin,    method    of    working    in, 
30 


278 


INDEX 


use  in  America,  13 
in  Europe,  13 
in  formal  design,  12 
in  informal  design,  12,  13 
in  park, 
At  Versailles 
Sequence,  64 
Service,  70,  71,  106,  164,  173,  178, 

184,   185,   210,   213 
Silhouette  in  landscape  gardening, 
30,   61,    107,    116,    137,   154, 
157 
Simplicity  in  landscape  design,  186 
Small  fruit,  239 
Small  places,  178-189 
Smoke  conditions,  40,  41 
Spraying,    16 
Spanish  gardens,  237 
Squares,  traffic,  119 

monumental,  44,  119 
Stable  yards,  210 
Statue,  location  of,  34,  82 

equilibrium   of,   66 
Soil,  16,  18,  152 
drainage,  16,  18 
composition,   16 
cultivations,  16 
Street  improvement  committee,  163 
planting,   164 
trees,   161 
Suburban   residence,   168 
Sundial,   location  of,   34,   81,    178, 

255 
Survey,  landscape,  164 

mental,   18 
Symmetrical,  balance,  63,  64 

bilateral,  64 
Symmetry,  82 


Tennis  courts,  drainage  of,  19,  262 
Thomas  circle,  44 
Topiary,  41,  44,  137,  220,  246,  262, 
264 


Torii  of  Myajima,  25 
Traffic,  71,  72 

U 

Unity,  by  color  painting,  101 
definition  of,  53 
in  design,  64 
of  interest,  8 


Vassar  College,  193 
Versailles,   13,  66 
Views,  69,  70,  71,  82,  83,  172 
Villa  Barberini,   223 

Borghese,  257 

d'Este,  236,  248,  249,  250,  251 

Domitians,  223 

Falconieri,   263 

Lante,  251,  255,  256 

Medici,  129 
Vista,  24,  67,  82,  129,  236 

W 

Walks,    17,    22,    69,    71,    77,    83, 
and  drives  on  campus,  194 
drainage  of,   19 
design  of,  22,  58,  61 
in  formal  gardens,  61 
width  of,  61,   161 
Walls,  retaining,  18,  255,  263 
architectural    problem,     11,     18, 

42 
emphasis,  architectural  features, 

43 
reason  for,  18 
use  of,  43 
Washington,  D.  C,  13,  44,  119 
Water  as  a  decorative  feature,  54, 

120,  217 
Watteau,  94 
Well-head,  34 
Wilton  House,  13,  53 


Date  Due 

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OCT   \^  ^^ 

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MAY  30  m. 

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BOSTON  COLLEGE 


3  9031   01490504  6 


151371 

p»nt.,RalpTn  ^  Kelley,    Charles 


AUTHOR 


Peoig^   in  T.anflflfiapp   GarriftnlQi 


TITUE 


Root 


BOSTON    COLLEGE    LIBRARY 

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